Kwadwo Konadu-Agyemang

The Best of Times and the Worst of Times: Structural Adjustment Programs and Uneven Development in Africa: The Case of Ghana

Since 1983, Ghana has been undergoing World Bank and International Monetary Fund (IMF) sponsored Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs). The implementation of the SAPs, it is claimed, has arrested Ghanas economy from complete collapse, resulted in consistent growth in GDP averaging 6% over the past decade, reduced inflation levels, created budget surplus, and increased export earnings. Compared to the 1970s, these are the best of times indeed. But while these SAPs-derived improvements in the national economy have been recorded at the macro level, the benefits at the micro level are a matter of considerable debate. This study revisits the issue of socioeconomic and spatial disparities that have characterized Ghana since colonial times, emphasizing the period from 1983 when Ghanas SAPs began. It examines current patterns of socioeconomic disparities with emphasis on the distribution of, and access to, health, education, basic services, and the like. The study focuses on urban-rural as well as interregional disparities in the country.

A survey of housing conditions and characteristics in Accra, an African city

Abstract This study presents a survey of housing conditions in Accra (Ghana), a city that has experienced tremendous population growth and housing problems since the 1950s. The paper discusses population growth and housing conditions in the city, comparing the situation in the 1950s and the 1990s. It is based primarily on the analysis of surveys conducted in 1954 and 1989 by Acquah and the author, respectively. The survey data is supplemented with data from a small-scale interview of 52 households conducted in 1997, and the three Ghana Living Standard Surveys conducted in 1987/88, 1988/89 and 1991/92 by the Ghana Statistical Services. The surveys reveal that housing conditions in Accra seem to be worse than what they were in the 1950s. Factors such as the poor economy, unrealistic rent control, outmoded building regulations and lack of housing finance that have contributed to the dismal housing situation are identified and discussed.

Unequal access, unequal participation: some spatial and socio‐economic dimensions of the gender gap in education in Africa with special reference to Ghana, Zimbabwe and Kenya

The question of unequal access to education among males and females appears to be universal in the developing world. However, females in Africa seem to suffer more discrimination in terms of access to education. This study revisits the question of gender disparities in educational access in Africa by analyzing data from recent comparative national surveys including the Demographic and Health Surveys, Living Standards Surveys, and World Bank data, focusing on Ghana, Zimbabwe and Kenya. It concludes that while substantial progress has been made in the last 40 years, female illiteracy rates are still high compared to males, and entrenched attitudes continue to keep females out of the educational system, thereby perpetuating the gender gap. Furthermore, while females are generally disadvantaged vis a vis their male counterparts, females living in the urban areas and some core regions tend to be better off than those living in the rural areas and peripheral regions. The paper suggests a number of policy recommendations that would enable African countries, especially the three countries used as case studies, to reap the full benefits that accrue from female education. These include the need for African governments to rededicate their efforts towards giving female education the highest priority, creating girl‐friendly school environments, helping resolve parental poverty issues that compel them to force girls into early marriages, legislating and enforcing laws that compel all children to stay in school for at least 12 years, and wiping out the long existing spatial inequities that enable people in certain locations to have better access to education than others.

The Changing Geography of Export Trade in Ghana under Structural Adjustment Programs: Some Socioeconomic and Spatial Implications

Abstract Like many other countries in Africa, Ghana has traditionally depended on a few export products—namely, cocoa, timber, and mineral resources—as the mainstays of its economy. The often-volatile nature of the world market price of these products made the economy very vulnerable to fluctuations in the prices of export commodities. Moreover, the geographical distribution of these resources meant that only a few regions could participate in their production and export. This resulted in wide spatial and socioeconomic disparities between the producing and nonproducing regions. Within the past eighteen years, however, a shift seems to have taken place. Under the auspices of the ongoing structural adjustment programs, emphasis is being placed on nontraditional export goods. This is not only helping to reduce the vulnerability of the economy by diversifying the sources of export earnings, but also engendering participation in the export trade by regions that have been traditionally left behind. This study analyses the changing geography of the export trade of Ghana using data from the International Monetary Fund/World Bank, the Ghanaian government, the World Trade Organization, and field observation. The study argues that while these new trends and efforts are laudable, they cannot bridge the gap between the export producing and nonproducing areas and cushion the economy against the vagaries of the export market unless deliberate attempts are made to improve transportation and other basic infrastructure in the less-endowed areas.

Transportation Development in Ghana Revisited

Abstract This paper examines issues on transportation development in Ghana. Gould (1960) and Taaffe, Morril and Gould (1963) proposed several years ago an ideal model of transportation development in Ghana. According to these authors, transportation development in Ghana would occur in six linear phases. The six phases are (1) scattered ports, (2) penetration lines and port concentration, (3) development of feeders, (4) beginnings of interconnection, (5) complete interconnection and (6) emergence of high priority main streets. While the model provides a useful theoretical explanation of transportation development in developing countries, the attainment of the six stages has not occurred in Ghana. Several factors have inhibited transportation development in Ghana. These factors and the relevance of Goulds model to contemporary transportation issues in Ghana are explored.

Reinventing Africa's Socio-economic Development through International Tourism Trade: The Case of Ghana

INTRODUCTION The importance of tourism and its unique role in socio-economic development cannot be overemphasized (Hall and Page 2002; Shaw and Williams 2002). Tourism does not only serve as a significant source of foreign exchange and domestic income for countries and communities around the world but it is also second to none in terms of the number of people employed directly and indirectly (Hunter and Green 1995). While the overall world economy has been experiencing recession, the tourism industry world wide has performed relatively well and has continued to attract investment. It has therefore become one of the most critical forces shaping the worlds economy (Williams 1998; WTO 2003). Indeed, according to the World Tourism Organization (WTO), in 2002 tourism arrivals world-wide amounted to 714.6 million (a 3% increase over 2001) generating revenues of US

Structural adjustment programs and housing affordability in Accra, Ghana

480 billion (WTO 2003). These are huge jumps from 1950 when international tourism arrivals amounted to 25.3 million and generated revenues of US

CHARACTERISTICS AND MIGRATION EXPERIENCE OF AFRICANS IN CANADA WITH SPECIFIC REFERENCE TO GHANAIANS IN GREATER TORONTO

2.1 billion (Milne and Ateljevic 2001), and from 1995 when arrivals reached 568 million and estimated receipts totaled US

What has Corruption Got to do with it? Understanding the Persistence of Rural-Urban and Inter-Regional Inequalities in Ghana and Zimbabwe

403.6 billion (WTO 1996). In 1999, tourism generated some US

African Immigrants to Canada and the United States: Some Socio-Economic and Spatial Dimensions

3.5 trillion of global GDP and created approximately 200 million jobs worldwide (Milne and Ateljevic 2001). Despite the drop in air travel following the September 11 terrorist attacks on the US and its negative impact on tourism, it still remains one of the most resilient and vibrant sectors of the world economy and has the potential to create its own employment and income multipliers. The huge earnings from tourism notwithstanding, very few countries in Africa have tapped into its full potential (Dieke 2000). Africa therefore accounts for less than 5% of global tourism arrivals and receipts (Matlou 2003). Out of the worlds 698 million tourist arrivals in 2000, only 26.9 million arrived in Africa (see Table 1). Of this number,