Kwi-Gon Kim

Energy and material flows of megacities

Significance Our quantification of energy and material flows for the world’s 27 megacities is a major undertaking, not previously achieved. The sheer magnitude of these flows (e.g., 9% of global electricity, 10% of gasoline; 13% of solid waste) shows the importance of megacities in addressing global environmental challenges. In aggregate the resource flows through megacities are consistent with scaling laws for cities. Statistical relations are established for electricity use, heating/industrial fuels, ground transportation, water consumption, waste generation, and steel production in terms of heating-degree days, urban form, economic activity, and population growth. Analysis at the microscale shows that electricity use is strongly correlated with building floor area, explaining the macroscale correlation between per capita electricity use and urbanized area per capita. Understanding the drivers of energy and material flows of cities is important for addressing global environmental challenges. Accessing, sharing, and managing energy and material resources is particularly critical for megacities, which face enormous social stresses because of their sheer size and complexity. Here we quantify the energy and material flows through the world’s 27 megacities with populations greater than 10 million people as of 2010. Collectively the resource flows through megacities are largely consistent with scaling laws established in the emerging science of cities. Correlations are established for electricity consumption, heating and industrial fuel use, ground transportation energy use, water consumption, waste generation, and steel production in terms of heating-degree-days, urban form, economic activity, and population growth. The results help identify megacities exhibiting high and low levels of consumption and those making efficient use of resources. The correlation between per capita electricity use and urbanized area per capita is shown to be a consequence of gross building floor area per capita, which is found to increase for lower-density cities. Many of the megacities are growing rapidly in population but are growing even faster in terms of gross domestic product (GDP) and energy use. In the decade from 2001–2011, electricity use and ground transportation fuel use in megacities grew at approximately half the rate of GDP growth.

The Application of the Biosphere Reserve Concept to Urban Areas: The Case of Green Rooftops for Habitat Network in Seoul

Abstract: This article consists of two parts. The first shows how the principles of the ecosystem approach can be applied to green rooftops, and the second attempts to illustrate it through a case study. In particular, it suggests new approaches and techniques for creation of green rooftops in a perspective of urban habitat network and urban biosphere reserve. To endow urban rooftops with the roles and functions of urban habitat network and urban biosphere reserve, it is necessary to apply “an ecosystem approach to urban management.” In this article, an ecosystem approach to urban management is illustrated with Seoul as an example. The Habitat Network in Seoul will be reviewed with a focus on the model suggested by MAB Urban Group. Then, the roles and functions of Myeongdong UNESCO Green Rooftop and its possible contribution to building the Seoul Urban Biosphere Network will be described. The UNESCO Green Rooftop is 628 m2 and was created on the 12th floor rooftop of UNESCO Building in Myeongdong 2‐ga, Jung‐ku, Seoul. In the green rooftop, which was created with goals of securing green areas and biotopes in downtown, creating an urban econetwork, securing a base for urban ecosystem study and environment education, and disseminating an idea of coexistence between nature and humankind, wetland, meadow, scrub and woodland, wall revegetation, and a vegetable field are created. Also, rainwater recycling facilities and a solar energy water circulation system were set up. Rest facilities including observation and education facilities were built. Based on the Seoul example, as well as urban biosphere reserve models suggested by the MAB Urban Group, we suggest several principles to be applied for a green rooftops to qualify as a category of urban biosphere reserves.

Wetland restoration to enhance biodiversity in urban areas: a comparative analysis

Wetlands mitigation for any activity can be applied to avoid or minimize damage and restore, enhance, or create wetlands as well. New tools for mitigating and creating wetlands are available, including the Wetland Impact Assessment. This article explores many current issues in wetland mitigation and mitigation strategies, using case studies for illustration. We include some general guidelines for successful wetland mitigation based primarily on existing literature review in several cities. We use comparison and analyses on biodiversity improvement and various wetland functions, including flood-risk management, linking people to nature through urban regeneration, and connecting with the natural environment. Also, restoration, enhancement, mitigation, and creation analyses are included.

Status and ecological resource value of the Republic of Korea's De-militarized Zone

This paper explores the status and value of ecological resources found in the De-militarized Zone (DMZ), an area of land separating North and South Korea, in terms of habitats and species. This approach contrasts with a conventional species-driven approach. There have been few surveys of ecological resources in the DMZ due to land mines and security issues. As such, there appear to be a number of less well known habitats and understudied and data deficient species within the DMZ. This paper seeks to improve knowledge of ecological resources within the DMZ by combining and synthesizing the author’s study results with the outcome of surveys of the DMZ conducted by various organizations. The paper also includes ecological mapping results. Conservation value is assessed using priorities identified by a number of Korean and foreign institutions. The conservation value of habitats, particularly of wetlands including peatland, is based on the Ramsar Site criteria, the International Peat Society criteria, and the designation criteria for the UNESCO World Natural Heritage and Biosphere Reserve. As in-depth studies on the functions of DMZ habitats are not available due to the constraints mentioned above, the habitat assessment is inevitably tentative. Species value is based on the IUCN’s Red Data Book (1997). This paper seeks to be used as material contributing to the conservation and sustainable use of the DMZ. In particular, this paper aims to aid in the designation of the DMZ as a World Natural Heritage site through the identification and suggestion of key or prime biodiversity areas within the DMZ. This is completed by using a model suggested by English Nature (UK) based on the aforementioned criteria.

Developing a wetland-type classification system in the Republic of Korea

Though there are wetlands listed by the IUCN and wetland protection areas designated by the government, it is presumed that there would be more wetlands in Korea when they are surveyed and classified according to international wetland criteria, but a considerable amount of area is yet to be identified. Therefore, in order to conduct a systematic status survey on the wetlands of Korea, a wetland classification system needs to be developed first. The objectives of this paper include reviewing international wetland classifications and mapping systems of the USA, Germany, the Netherlands, Japan and North Korea and developing a wetland classification and mapping system appropriate to Korea based on an understanding of the major case examples of wetland types. Then, the developed system was applied to the Phanmun field watershed located at the western DMZ in Korea to conduct a case study. The overall process of a wetland classification and mapping system developed in this study is undertaken as the following from step 1 to step 5. First, wetlands are identified based on three parameters: hydrology, hydrophytes and hydric soil. Second, wetland delineation distinguished wetland areas and non-wetland areas by identifying wetlands through a field survey. Third, an ecological survey is conducted in order to classify wetland characteristics and types for the target area. Ecological survey items include the topography, landscape, biota, pollutant sources and land use status. Fourth, a wetland classification is developed through a hybrid approach based on HGM (the hydrogeomorphic method). Level 1 is classified into inland, estuarine and costal areas. Level 2, the target area, is classified as an eco-region at a watershed level, and level 3 is classified into depression, riverine, slope, flat and fringe areas based on a HGM approach. Level 4 is classified into detailed wetland types based on specific characteristics of wetlands. Level 5 is classified into marsh and swamp based on grasslands and shrubs and forest trees. Level 6 indicates the dominant vegetation communities.

Risk assessment in urban planning and management∗: A metropolitan example

Abstract Risk assessment has become a major issue to widen the horizons of urban planning and management to meet new goals. Of great significance in such assessments is the prediction and evaluation of existing and potential human health effects due to energy sources and usage. In this article, the author presents the main findings of a MAB project in Seoul, which was conducted as a third phase of ecological studies of Seoul Urban Systems, under the auspices of the National MAB Committee of the Republic of Korea, with the financial support of UNESCO-MAB. A case of assessing environmental risks in Seoul, Korea, is studied to demonstrate the concept and mechanics of the risk assessment methods by an analysis of the relationship between SO2, NOx, CO, TSP exposure and the related increase in respiratory diseases and mortality. It is argued that by better understanding of the cause and effect relationship between energy utilisation and environmental health and by integrating urbanism and risk issues through the planning process — a process of integration, cities can be planned and managed for greater safety.

Future of Climate Smart Cities

This chapter considers possible future developments in climate smart cities. Some positive directions to move forward will be characterized by a shift in global planning paradigms, more development of smart connect-tech and testbeds, political will, new guidelines and legislation for climate smart city planning, active public participation in all phases of climate smart city planning processes, current and future research development efforts. Increased connectivity and use of IT platforms, Internet-based data and analytics will increase cyber-vulnerabilities. As such, cities, city governments and planners, and citizens will have to actively explore and devise ways to prepare and protect themselves against cyber-threats. How governments can respond to these new multilayer threats will be a particular challenge.

Staus and Ecological Resource Value of the DMZ Area

This chapter explores the status and value of ecological resources, in terms of habitats and species found in the De-militarized Zone (DMZ), the area separating North and South Korea. To maximize the knowledge on the ecological resources within the DMZ, this chapter is not delimited to the results of the study conducted by the environmental and ecological group led by the author of this book. Outcomes of surveys conducted by various organizations were also consolidated in this presentation. This chapter seeks to be used as a material for the conservation and sustainable use of the DMZ. Finally, it aims to strengthen the advocacy on the designation of the DMZ as a World Natural Heritage site through the identification and suggestion of key or prime biodiversity areas (PBAs) within the DMZ.

Landscape Ecology of the DMZ Area

This chapter encompasses the landscape ecological point of view of the DMZ. In the first part of this chapter, the concepts, scientific theories, principles, and models in the characterization of the ecological landscapes are presented. Moreover, in the latter parts of this chapter, the results of analysis and evaluation of expert investigation follow.

Threatening Factors in the DMZ Area

This book is again another attempt to convince all nations to unite, to do whatever they can to save the environment, and save the world they live in. This book speaks of landscapes, ecology, biodiversity and biologic health. All that has been learned from the facts presented through research revelations, the bottom line is, DMZ is “crying for help.”