Kyle D. Copps

Regulation of insulin sensitivity by serine/threonine phosphorylation of insulin receptor substrate proteins IRS1 and IRS2.

The insulin receptor substrate proteins IRS1 and IRS2 are key targets of the insulin receptor tyrosine kinase and are required for hormonal control of metabolism. Tissues from insulin-resistant and diabetic humans exhibit defects in IRS-dependent signalling, implicating their dysregulation in the initiation and progression of metabolic disease. However, IRS1 and IRS2 are regulated through a complex mechanism involving phosphorylation of >50 serine/threonine residues (S/T) within their long, unstructured tail regions. In cultured cells, insulin-stimulated kinases (including atypical PKC, AKT, SIK2, mTOR, S6K1, ERK1/2 and ROCK1) mediate feedback (autologous) S/T phosphorylation of IRS, with both positive and negative effects on insulin sensitivity. Additionally, insulin-independent (heterologous) kinases can phosphorylate IRS1/2 under basal conditions (AMPK, GSK3) or in response to sympathetic activation and lipid/inflammatory mediators, which are present at elevated levels in metabolic disease (GRK2, novel and conventional PKCs, JNK, IKKβ, mPLK). An emerging view is that the positive/negative regulation of IRS by autologous pathways is subverted/co-opted in disease by increased basal and other temporally inappropriate S/T phosphorylation. Compensatory hyperinsulinaemia may contribute strongly to this dysregulation. Here, we examine the links between altered patterns of IRS S/T phosphorylation and the emergence of insulin resistance and diabetes.

Inactivation of Hepatic Foxo1 by Insulin Signaling Is Required for Adaptive Nutrient Homeostasis and Endocrine Growth Regulation

The forkhead transcription factor Foxo1 regulates expression of genes involved in stress resistance and metabolism. To assess the contribution of Foxo1 to metabolic dysregulation during hepatic insulin resistance, we disrupted Foxo1 expression in the liver of mice lacking hepatic Irs1 and Irs2 (DKO mice). DKO mice were small and developed diabetes; analysis of the DKO-liver transcriptome identified perturbed expression of growth and metabolic genes, including increased Ppargc1a and Igfbp1, and decreased glucokinase, Srebp1c, Ghr, and Igf1. Liver-specific deletion of Foxo1 in DKO mice resulted in significant normalization of the DKO-liver transcriptome and partial restoration of the response to fasting and feeding, near normal blood glucose and insulin concentrations, and normalization of body size. These results demonstrate that constitutively active Foxo1 significantly contributes to hyperglycemia during severe hepatic insulin resistance, and that the Irs1/2 --> PI3K --> Akt --> Foxo1 branch of insulin signaling is largely responsible for hepatic insulin-regulated glucose homeostasis and somatic growth.

Foxo1 integrates insulin signaling with mitochondrial function in the liver

Type 2 diabetes is a complex disease that is marked by the dysfunction of glucose and lipid metabolism. Hepatic insulin resistance is especially pathogenic in type 2 diabetes, as it dysregulates fasting and postprandial glucose tolerance and promotes systemic dyslipidemia and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Mitochondrial dysfunction is closely associated with insulin resistance and might contribute to the progression of diabetes. Here we used previously generated mice with hepatic insulin resistance owing to the deletion of the genes encoding insulin receptor substrate-1 (Irs-1) and Irs-2 (referred to here as double-knockout (DKO) mice) to establish the molecular link between dysregulated insulin action and mitochondrial function. The expression of several forkhead box O1 (Foxo1) target genes increased in the DKO liver, including heme oxygenase-1 (Hmox1), which disrupts complex III and IV of the respiratory chain and lowers the NAD+/NADH ratio and ATP production. Although peroxisome proliferator–activated receptor-γ coactivator-1α (Ppargc-1α) was also upregulated in DKO liver, it was acetylated and failed to promote compensatory mitochondrial biogenesis or function. Deletion of hepatic Foxo1 in DKO liver normalized the expression of Hmox1 and the NAD+/NADH ratio, reduced Ppargc-1α acetylation and restored mitochondrial oxidative metabolism and biogenesis. Thus, Foxo1 integrates insulin signaling with mitochondrial function, and inhibition of Foxo1 can improve hepatic metabolism during insulin resistance and the metabolic syndrome.

Irs1 and Irs2 signaling is essential for hepatic glucose homeostasis and systemic growth

Insulin receptor substrates, including Irs1 and Irs2, integrate insulin and IGF receptor signals with heterologous pathways to coordinate growth and metabolism. Since Irs2 is thought to be especially important in hepatic nutrient homeostasis, we deleted Irs2 [corrected] from hepatocytes of WT mice (called LKO) or genetically insulin-resistant Irs1-/- mice (called LKO::Irs1-/-). Viable LKO::Irs1-/- mice were 70% smaller than WT or LKO mice, and 40% smaller than Irs1-/- mice. Hepatic insulin receptors were functional in all the mice, but insulin signaling via the Akt-FoxO1 pathway was reduced in Irs1-/- and LKO liver, and undetected in LKO::Irs1-/- liver; however, Gsk3beta phosphorylation (Ser9) and hepatic glycogen stores were nearly normal in all of the mice. LKO and Irs1-/- mice developed insulin resistance and glucose intolerance that never progressed to diabetes, whereas LKO::Irs1-/- mice developed hyperglycemia and hyperinsulinemia immediately after birth. Regardless, few hepatic genes changed expression significantly in Irs1-/- or LKO mice, whereas hundreds of genes changed in LKO::Irs1-/- mice--including elevated levels of Pck1, G6pc, Ppargc1, Pparg, and Igfbp1. Thus, signals delivered by Irs1 or Irs2 regulate hepatic gene expression that coordinates glucose homeostasis and systemic growth.

Irs1 Serine 307 Promotes Insulin Sensitivity in Mice

Phosphorylation of the insulin receptor substrates (Irs) on serine residues-typified by Ser307 of rodent Irs1-is thought to mediate insulin resistance. To determine whether Ser307 negatively regulates Irs1 in vivo, we generated knockin mice in which Ser307 (human Ser312) was replaced with alanine (A/A). Unexpectedly, A/A mice that were fed a high-fat diet developed more severe insulin resistance than control mice, accompanied by enhanced pancreatic compensation and impaired muscle insulin signaling. Chow-fed mice whose livers lacked Irs2 but retained a single knockin allele (A/lox::LKO2) were profoundly insulin resistant (versus +/lox::LKO2 mice), and their hepatocytes showed impaired insulin signaling ex vivo. Similarly, mutant A307 Irs1 adenovirus only partially restored the response to injected insulin in mice lacking hepatic Irs1 and Irs2. Thus, contrary to the results of cell-based experiments, Ser307 in mice is a positive regulatory site that moderates the severity of insulin resistance by maintaining proximal insulin signaling.

Complex formation by the Drosophila MSL proteins: role of the MSL2 RING finger in protein complex assembly

Drosophila MSL proteins are thought to act within a complex to elevate transcription from the male X chromosome. We found that the MSL1, MSL2 and MSL3 proteins are associated in immunoprecipitations, chromatographic steps and in the yeast two‐hybrid system, but that the MLE protein is not tightly complexed in these assays. We focused our analysis on the MSL2–MSL1 interaction, which is postulated to play a critical role in MSL complex association with the X chromosome. Using a modified two‐hybrid assay, we isolated missense mutations in MSL2 that disrupt its interaction with MSL1. Eleven out of 12 mutated residues clustered around the first zinc‐binding site of the RING finger domain were conserved in a Drosophila virilis MSL2 homolog. Two pre‐existing msl2 alleles, which fail to support male viability in vivo, have lesions in the same region of the RING finger. We tested these in the two‐hybrid system and found that they are also defective in interaction with MSL1. Mutation of the second zinc‐binding site had little effect on MSL1 binding, suggesting that this portion of the RING finger may have a distinct function. Our data support a model in which MSL2–MSL1 interaction nucleates assembly of an MSL complex, with which MLE is weakly or transiently associated.

The Irs1 branch of the insulin signaling cascade plays a dominant role in hepatic nutrient homeostasis.

ABSTRACT We used a Cre-loxP approach to generate mice with varied expression of hepatic Irs1 and Irs2 to establish the contribution of each protein to hepatic nutrient homeostasis. While nutrient-sensitive transcripts were expressed nearly normally in liver lacking Irs2 (LKO2 mice), these transcripts were significantly dysregulated in liver lacking Irs1 (LKO1 mice) or Irs1 and Irs2 together (DKO mice). Similarly, a set of key gluconeogenic and lipogenic genes was regulated nearly normally by feeding in liver retaining a single Irs1 allele without Irs2 (DKO/1 mice) but was poorly regulated in liver retaining one Irs2 allele without Irs1 (DKO/2 mice). DKO/2 mice, but not DKO/1 mice, also showed impaired glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity—though both Irs1 and Irs2 were required to suppress hepatic glucose production during hyperinsulinemic-euglycemic clamp. In contrast, either hepatic Irs1 or Irs2 mediated suppression of HGP by intracerebroventricular insulin infusion. After 12 weeks on a high-fat diet, postprandial tyrosine phosphorylation of Irs1 increased in livers of control and LKO2 mice, whereas tyrosine phosphorylation of Irs2 decreased in control and LKO1 mice. Moreover, LKO1 mice—but not LKO2 mice—that were fed a high-fat diet developed postprandial hyperglycemia. We conclude that Irs1 is the principal mediator of hepatic insulin action that maintains glucose homeostasis.

Human IL6 enhances leptin action in mice

Aims/hypothesisInterleukin-6 is an inflammatory cytokine with pleiotropic effects upon nutrient homeostasis. Many reports show that circulating IL6 correlates with obesity and contributes to insulin resistance; however, IL6 can promote energy expenditure that improves glucose homeostasis.MethodsWe investigated nutrient homeostasis in C57BL/6J mice with sustained circulating human IL6 (hIL6) secreted predominantly from brain and lung (hIL6tg mice).ResultsThe hIL6tg mice displayed no features of systemic inflammation and were more insulin-sensitive than wild-type mice. On a high-fat diet, hIL6tg mice were lean, had low leptin concentrations, consumed less food and expended more energy than wild-type mice. Like ob/ob mice, the ob/obIL6 mice (generated by intercrossing ob/ob and hIL6tg mice) were obese and glucose-intolerant. However, low-dose leptin injections increased physical activity and reduced both body weight and food intake in ob/obIL6 mice, but was ineffective in ob/ob mice. Leptin increased hypothalamic signal transducer and activator of transcription-3 phosphorylation in ob/obIL6 mice, whereas ob/ob mice barely responded.Conclusions/interpretationHuman IL6 enhanced central leptin action in mice, promoting nutrient homeostasis and preventing diet-induced obesity.

Insulin Receptor Substrates Irs1 and Irs2 Coordinate Skeletal Muscle Growth and Metabolism via the Akt and AMPK Pathways

ABSTRACT Coordination of skeletal muscle growth and metabolism with nutrient availability is critical for metabolic homeostasis. To establish the role of insulin-like signaling in this process, we used muscle creatine kinase (MCK)-Cre to disrupt expression of insulin receptor substrates Irs1 and Irs2 in mouse skeletal/cardiac muscle. In 2-week-old mice, skeletal muscle masses and insulin responses were slightly affected by Irs1, but not Irs2, deficiency. In contrast, the combined deficiency of Irs1 and Irs2 (MDKO mice) severely reduced skeletal muscle growth and Akt→mTOR signaling and caused death by 3 weeks of age. Autopsy of MDKO mice revealed dilated cardiomyopathy, reflecting the known requirement of insulin-like signaling for cardiac function (P. G. Laustsen et al., Mol. Cell. Biol. 27:1649-1664, 2007). Impaired growth and function of MDKO skeletal muscle were accompanied by increased Foxo-dependent atrogene expression and amino acid release. MDKO mice were resistant to injected insulin, and their isolated skeletal muscles showed decreased insulin-stimulated glucose uptake. Glucose utilization in MDKO mice and isolated skeletal muscles was shifted from oxidation to lactate production, accompanied by an elevated AMP/ATP ratio that increased AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK)→acetyl coenzyme A carboxylase (ACC) phosphorylation and fatty acid oxidation. Thus, insulin-like signaling via Irs1/2 is essential to terminate skeletal muscle catabolic/fasting pathways in the presence of adequate nutrition.

Pulsatile Portal Vein Insulin Delivery Enhances Hepatic Insulin Action and Signaling

Insulin is secreted as discrete insulin secretory bursts at ∼5-min intervals into the hepatic portal vein, these pulses being attenuated early in the development of type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Intraportal insulin infusions (pulsatile, constant, or reproducing that in T2DM) indicated that the pattern of pulsatile insulin secretion delivered via the portal vein is important for hepatic insulin action and, therefore, presumably for hepatic insulin signaling. To test this, we examined hepatic insulin signaling in rat livers exposed to the same three patterns of portal vein insulin delivery by use of sequential liver biopsies in anesthetized rats. Intraportal delivery of insulin in a constant versus pulsatile pattern led to delayed and impaired activation of hepatic insulin receptor substrate (IRS)-1 and IRS-2 signaling, impaired activation of downstream insulin signaling effector molecules AKT and Foxo1, and decreased expression of glucokinase (Gck). We further established that hepatic Gck expression is decreased in the HIP rat model of T2DM, a defect that correlated with a progressive defect of pulsatile insulin secretion. We conclude that the physiological pulsatile pattern of insulin delivery is important in hepatic insulin signaling and glycemic control. Hepatic insulin resistance in diabetes is likely in part due to impaired pulsatile insulin secretion.