Kyu-Hee Lee

Target Cell-Specific Involvement of Presynaptic Mitochondria in Post-Tetanic Potentiation at Hippocampal Mossy Fiber Synapses

Previous studies indicate that boutons from the same axon exhibit distinct Ca2+ dynamics depending on the postsynaptic targets. Mossy fibers of hippocampal granule cells innervate synaptic targets via morphologically distinct boutons. We investigated mitochondrial involvement in the generation of post-tetanic residual Ca2+ (Cares) at large and small en passant mossy fiber boutons (MFBs). Mitochondria limited the [Ca2+]i build-up during high-frequency stimulation (HFS) at large MFBs, but not at small MFBs. The amount of Cares, quantified as a time integral of residual [Ca2+]i, was significantly larger at large MFBs than at small MFBs, and that at large MFBs was substantially attenuated by inhibitors of mitochondrial Ca2+ uniporter and mitochondrial Na+/Ca2+ exchanger (mitoNCX). In contrast, blockers of mitoNCX had no effect on the Cares at small MFBs. Post-tetanic Cares has been proposed as a mechanism for post-tetanic potentiation (PTP). We examined mitochondrial involvement in PTP at mossy fiber synapses on hilar mossy cells (MF→MC synapse) and on hilar interneurons (MF→HI synapse), which are presumably innervated via large and small MFBs, respectively. Consistent with the differential contribution of mitochondria to Cares at large and small MFBs, mitoNCX blockers significantly reduced the PTP at the MF→MC synapse, but not at the MF→HI synapse. In contrast, protein kinase C (PKC) inhibitors significantly reduced the PTP at MF→HI synapse, but not at the MF→MC synapse. These results indicate that mitochondria- and PKC-dependent PTP are expressed at distinct hilar mossy fiber synapses depending on postsynaptic targets.

Leptin promotes KATP channel trafficking by AMPK signaling in pancreatic β-cells

Leptin is a pivotal regulator of energy and glucose homeostasis, and defects in leptin signaling result in obesity and diabetes. The ATP-sensitive potassium (KATP) channels couple glucose metabolism to insulin secretion in pancreatic β-cells. In this study, we provide evidence that leptin modulates pancreatic β-cell functions by promoting KATP channel translocation to the plasma membrane via AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) signaling. KATP channels were localized mostly to intracellular compartments of pancreatic β-cells in the fed state and translocated to the plasma membrane in the fasted state. This process was defective in leptin-deficient ob/ob mice, but restored by leptin treatment. We discovered that the molecular mechanism of leptin-induced AMPK activation involves canonical transient receptor potential 4 and calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase kinase β. AMPK activation was dependent on both leptin and glucose concentrations, so at optimal concentrations of leptin, AMPK was activated sufficiently to induce KATP channel trafficking and hyperpolarization of pancreatic β-cells in a physiological range of fasting glucose levels. There was a close correlation between phospho-AMPK levels and β-cell membrane potentials, suggesting that AMPK-dependent KATP channel trafficking is a key mechanism for regulating β-cell membrane potentials. Our results present a signaling pathway whereby leptin regulates glucose homeostasis by modulating β-cell excitability.

KIF21A-Mediated Axonal Transport and Selective Endocytosis Underlie the Polarized Targeting of NCKX2

We have previously shown that K+-dependent Na+/Ca2+ exchanger (NCKX) is a major calcium clearance mechanism at the large axon terminals of central neurons, whereas their somata display little NCKX activity. We investigated mechanisms underlying the axonal polarization of NCKX2 in rat hippocampal neurons. We identified NCKX2 as the first neuron-specific cargo molecule of kinesin family member 21A (KIF21A). The intracellular loop of NCKX2 specifically interacted with the WD-40 repeats, a putative cargo-binding domain, of KIF21A. Dominant-negative mutant or depletion of KIF21A inhibited the transport of NCKX2-GFP to axon fibers. Knockdown of KIF21A caused calcium dysregulation at axonal boutons but not at somatodendritic regions. Despite the axonal polarization of the NCKX activity, both somatodendritic and axonal regions were immunoreactive to NCKX2. The surface expression of NCKX2 revealed by live-cell immunocytochemistry, however, displayed highly polarized distribution to the axon. Inhibition of endocytosis increased the somatodendritic surface NCKX2 and thus abolished the axonal polarization of surface NCKX2. These results indicate that KIF21A-mediated axonal transport and selective somatodendritic endocytosis underlie the axonal polarized surface expression of NCKX2.

Activity‐dependent downregulation of D‐type K+ channel subunit Kv1.2 in rat hippocampal CA3 pyramidal neurons

•  The intrinsic excitability of a hippocampal CA3 pyramidal cell (CA3‐PC), but not CA1‐PC, is enhanced by repetitive somatic firing at a physiologically relevant frequency (10 Hz for 2 s). •  Such an excitability change is mediated by the Ca2+‐ and Src family kinase‐dependent endocytosis of D‐type K+ channel subunit Kv1.2. •  We provide evidence that the surface expression of D‐type K+ channels is higher in the distal apical dendrites than in the proximal apical dendrites in CA3‐PCs. •  These results help us understand neuronal computational mechanisms underlying the cognitive functions of the hippocampal CA3 area.

Protein kinase C-dependent enhancement of activity of rat brain NCKX2 heterologously expressed in HEK293 cells.

Different members of the Na+/Ca2++K+ exchanger (NCKX) family are present in distinct brain regions, suggesting that they may have cell-specific functions. Many neuronal channels and transporters are regulated via phosphorylation. Regulation of the rat brain NCKXs by protein kinases, however, has not been described. Here, we report an increase in NCKX2 activity in response to protein kinase C (PKC) activation. Outward current of NCKX2 heterologously expressed in HEK293 cells was enhanced by β-phorbol dibutyrate (PDBu), whereas PDBu had little effect on activity of NCKX3 or NCKX4. The PDBu-induced enhancement (PIE) of NCKX2 activity was abolished by PKC inhibitors and significantly reduced when the dominant negative mutant of PKCϵ (K437R) was overexpressed. Moreover, PDBu accelerated the decay rate of the Ca2+ transient at the calyx of Held, where NCKX is the major Ca2+-clearance mechanism. Intracellular perfusion with alkaline phosphatase completely inhibited PIE. Consistently, β-phorbol myristate acetate (PMA), but not 4α-PMA, induced a 3-fold stimulation of 32P incorporation into NCKX2 expressed in HEK293 cells. To investigate the sites involved, PIE of wild-type NCKX2 was compared with mutant NCKX2 in which the three putative PKC consensus sites were replaced with alanine, either individually or in combination. Double-site mutation involving Thr-476 (T166A/T476A and T476A/S504A) disrupted PIE, whereas single mutation of Thr-166, Thr-476, or Ser-504 or the double mutant T166A/S504A failed to completely prevent PIE. These findings suggest that PKC-mediated activation of NCKX2 is sensitive to mutation of multiple PKC consensus sites via a mechanism that may involve several phosphorylation events.

Costimulation of AMPA and metabotropic glutamate receptors underlies phospholipase C activation by glutamate in hippocampus.

Glutamate, a major neurotransmitter in the brain, activates ionotropic and metabotropic glutamate receptors (iGluRs and mGluRs, respectively). The two types of glutamate receptors interact with each other, as exemplified by the modulation of iGluRs by mGluRs. However, the other way of interaction (i.e., modulation of mGluRs by iGluRs) has not received much attention. In this study, we found that group I mGluR-specific agonist (RS)-3,5-dihydroxyphenylglycine (DHPG) alone is not sufficient to activate phospholipase C (PLC) in rat hippocampus, while glutamate robustly activates PLC. These results suggested that additional mechanisms provided by iGluRs are involved in group I mGluR-mediated PLC activation. A series of experiments demonstrated that glutamate-induced PLC activation is mediated by mGluR5 and is facilitated by local Ca2+ signals that are induced by AMPA-mediated depolarization and L-type Ca2+ channel activation. Finally, we found that PLC and L-type Ca2+ channels are involved in hippocampal mGluR-dependent long-term depression (mGluR-LTD) induced by paired-pulse low-frequency stimulation, but not in DHPG-induced chemical LTD. Together, we propose that AMPA receptors initiate Ca2+ influx via the L-type Ca2+ channels that facilitate mGluR5-PLC signaling cascades, which underlie mGluR-LTD in rat hippocampus.

Endocytosis of somatodendritic NCKX2 is regulated by Src family kinase-dependent tyrosine phosphorylation

We have previously reported that the surface expression of K+-dependent Na+/Ca2+ exchanger 2 (NCKX2) in the somatodendritic compartment is kept low by constitutive endocytosis, which results in the polarization of surface NCKX2 to the axon. Clathrin-mediated endocytosis is initiated by interaction of the μ subunit of adaptor protein complex 2 (AP-2) with the canonical tyrosine motif (YxxΦ) of a target molecule. We examined whether endocytosis of NCKX2 involves two putative tyrosine motifs (365YGKL and 371YDTM) in the cytoplasmic loop of NCKX2. Coimmunoprecipitation assay revealed that the 365YGKL motif is essential for the interaction with the μ subunit of AP-2 (AP2M1). Consistently, either overexpression of NCKX2-Y365A mutant or knockdown of AP2M1 in cultured hippocampal neurons significantly reduced the internalization of NCKX2 from the somatodendritic surface and thus abolished the axonal polarization of surface NCKX2. Next, we tested whether the interaction between the tyrosine motif and AP2M1 is regulated by phosphorylation of the 365th tyrosine residue (Tyr-365). Tyrosine phosphorylation of heterologously expressed NCKX2-WT, but not NCKX2-Y365A, was increased by carbachol (CCh) in PC-12 cells. The effect of CCh was inhibited by PP2, a Src family kinase (SFK) inhibitor. Moreover, PP2 facilitated the endocytosis of NCKX2 in both the somatodendritic and axonal compartments, suggesting that tyrosine phosphorylation of NCKX2 by SFK negatively regulates its endocytosis. Supporting this idea, activation of SFK enhanced the NCKX activity in the proximal dendrites of dentate granule cells (GCs). These results suggest that endocytosis of somatodendritic NCKX2 is regulated by SFK-dependent phosphorylation of Tyr-365.

Kv1.2 mediates heterosynaptic modulation of direct cortical synaptic inputs in CA3 pyramidal cells

We investigated the cellular mechanisms underlying mossy fibre‐induced heterosynaptic long‐term potentiation of perforant path (PP) inputs to CA3 pyramidal cells. Here we show that this heterosynaptic potentiation is mediated by downregulation of Kv1.2 channels. The downregulation of Kv1.2 preferentially enhanced PP‐evoked EPSPs which occur at distal apical dendrites. Such enhancement of PP‐EPSPs required activation of dendritic Na+ channels, and its threshold was lowered by downregulation of Kv1.2. Our results may provide new insights into the long‐standing question of how mossy fibre inputs constrain the CA3 network to sparsely represent direct cortical inputs.

Ca 2+ clearance by plasmalemmal NCLX, Li + -permeable Na + /Ca 2+ exchanger, is required for the sustained exocytosis in rat insulinoma INS-1 cells

Na+/Ca2+ exchangers are key players for Ca2+ clearance in pancreatic β-cells, but their molecular determinants and roles in insulin secretion are not fully understood. In the present study, we newly discovered that the Li+-permeable Na+/Ca2+ exchangers (NCLX), which were known as mitochondrial Na+/Ca2+ exchangers, contributed to the Na+-dependent Ca2+ movement across the plasma membrane in rat INS-1 insulinoma cells. Na+/Ca2+ exchange activity by NCLX was comparable to that by the Na+/Ca2+ exchanger, NCX. We also confirmed the presence of NCLX proteins on the plasma membrane using immunocytochemistry and cell surface biotinylation experiments. We further investigated the role of NCLX on exocytosis function by measuring the capacitance increase in response to repetitive depolarization. Small interfering (si)RNA-mediated downregulation of NCLX did not affect the initial exocytosis, but significantly suppressed sustained exocytosis and recovery of exocytosis. XIP (NCX inhibitory peptide) or Na+ replacement for inhibiting Na+-dependent Ca2+ clearance also selectively suppressed sustained exocytosis. Consistent with the idea that sustained exocytosis requires ATP-dependent vesicle recruitment, mitochondrial function, assessed by mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨ), was impaired by siNCLX or XIP. However, depolarization-induced exocytosis was hardly affected by changes in intracellular Na+ concentration, suggesting a negligible contribution of mitochondrial Na+/Ca2+ exchanger. Taken together, our data indicate that Na+/Ca2+ exchanger-mediated Ca2+ clearance mediated by NCLX and NCX is crucial for optimizing mitochondrial function, which in turn contributes to vesicle recruitment for sustained exocytosis in pancreatic β-cells.

Double-Blind Evaluation of the Safety and Efficacy of Tenoxicam (Tilcotil®) Compared with Piroxicam in Patients with Degenerative Arthritis

19 men and 61 women with degenerative arthritis of the knee joint were randomly allocated to receive tenoxicam 20mg (n = 40) or piroxicam 20mg (n = 40) orally before breakfast once daily, for 6 weeks. The study was of a double-blind parallel design and patients underwent a washout period of up to 14 days before beginning the study medications. The 2 groups were of comparable sex ratio, age, weight, disease duration and treatment history, with most patients having a 1to lO-year history of disease and 48 patients having previ-