Kyung-Min Oh

Measurement of the electrical properties of a polycrystalline cadmium telluride for direct conversion flat panel x-ray detector

Cadmium telluride (CdTe) is one of the best candidate direct conversion material for medical X-ray application because it satisfies the requirements of direct conversion x-ray material such as high atomic absorption, density, bandgap energy, work fuction, and resistivity. With such properties, single crystal CdTe exhibits high quantum efficiency and charge collection efficiency. However, for the development of low-cost large area detector, the study of the improvement of polycrystalline CdTe property is desirable. In this study, in order to improve the properties of polycrystalline CdTe, we produced polycrystalline CdTe with different kinds of raw materials, high purity Cd and Te powder compounds and bulk CdTe compound synthesized from single crystal CdTe. The electric properties including resistivity, x-ray sensitivity, and charge transport properties were investigated. As a result, polycrystalline CdTe exhibited simular level of resistivity and x-ray sensitivity to single crystal CdTe. The carrier transport properties of polycrystalline CdTe showed poorer properties than those of single crystal CdTe due to significant charge trapping. However, the polycrystalline CdTe fabricated with bulk CdTe compound synthesized from single crystal CdTe showed better charge transport properties than the polycrystalline CdTe fabricated with CdTe powder compounds. This is suitable for diagnostic x-ray detectors, especially for digital fluoroscopy.

The development of efficient X-ray conversion material for digital mammography

In this study, an experimental method based on theory is used to develop photoconductor that can replace the a-Se currently used as X-ray conversion layer in digital mammography. This is necessary because a-Se produced by the commercial fabrication method, of physical vapor deposition, has exhibited several problems when applied to digital mammography: instability due to crystallization and defect expansion due to high operating voltages, which is called the aging effect. Therefore, our work focused on developing a method of fabricating X-ray conversion films that do not suffer from crystallization and X-ray damage and optimizing the factors affecting the properties of the candidate photoconductors in order to acquire sufficient electrical signals to detect minute calcifications. The photoconductors were initially selected after the requirements for X-ray conversion materials, such as high atomic absorption, density, band-gap energy, work function, and resistivity, were examined. We selected HgI2, PbI2, and PbO because of their basic properties. Next, we experimentally investigated the performance of film samples fabricated by sedimentation and screen printing instead of physical vapor deposition. The structure of the X-ray conversion films (e.g., the thickness, electrodes, and blocking layer) were optimized for the application of a relatively low voltage to the X-ray conversion layer. The performance of the films were morphologically and electrically evaluated under mammography X-ray exposure conditions, and compared with those of a-Se films produced by physical vapor deposition. PbO appeared to be the most suitable alternative material because its electrical properties, such as the dark current, sensitivity, and signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), did not reveal the X-ray damage problem, and thus were maintained after repeated exposure to X-rays. Although PbO showed low sensitivity to X-ray exposure, its SNR was superior to that of the other materials, which is expected to improve its detective quantum efficiency, one of the factors used in evaluating images acquired by digital mammography.

Implementation of radiation image detector based on lutetium and gadolinium phosphors

The clinical use of radiation image detectors is influenced by the degree to which patients are exposed to radiation. Phosphors are being used as the radiation receptor materials in a number of radiation imaging systems for the detection of radiation. Rare earth phosphors such as those of Gd, Y, Lu, and La are attracting attention in particular as they exhibit improved properties. However, there has not been any research on the conditions for the synthesis of these phosphors, including the optimal concentrations in which the sensitizer should be added to them. Therefore, in this study, the optimal conditions for the phosphor synthesis were determined by analyzing the characteristics of the phosphors fabricated using various sensitizer concentrations. The deposition method used to form films of the synthesized phosphors was screen printing. This technique is suitable for large-area deposition and allowed for imaging to be performed in conjunction with a complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS) image detector. The phosphors synthesized were Gd2O3:Eu and Lu2O3:Eu, and the sensitizer used was citric acid, which was added in varying concentrations (0.00–0.05 g) to the phosphors during synthesis. Films of the phosphors 5 × 5 cm in size, which was the size of the active area of the CMOS image sensor, and 100–250 μm in thickness were formed. The structural characteristics of the phosphors were determined through X-ray diffraction analyses and scanning electron microscopy, and the optical characteristics through photoluminescence (PL) measurements. A CMOS-based X-ray detector was manufactured by attaching the phosphor films to the CMOS image sensor and evaluating the modulation transfer functions of the images obtained. The results showed that of all the phosphor samples synthesized, the Gd2O3:Eu and Lu2O3:Eu samples synthesized using 0.02 g of citric acid exhibited the best luminescence characteristics.

Improvement in photoconductor film properties by changing dielectric layer structures

In recent times, digital X-ray detectors have been actively applied to the medical field; for example, digital radiography offers the potential of improved image quality and provides opportunities for advances in medical image management, computer-aided diagnosis and teleradiology. In this study, two candidate materials (HgI2 and PbI2) have been employed to study the influence of the dielectric structure on the performance of fabricated X-ray photoconducting films. Parylene C with high permittivity was deposited as a dielectric layer using a parylene deposition system (PDS 2060). The structural and morphological properties of the samples were evaluated field emission scanning electron microscopy and X-ray diffraction. Further, to investigate improvements in the electrical characteristics, a dark current in the dark room and sensitivity to X-ray exposure in the energy range of general radiography diagnosis were measured across the range of the operating voltage. The electric signals varied with the dielectric layer structure of the X-ray films. The PbI2 film with a bottom dielectric layer showed optimized electric properties. On the other hand, in the case of HgI2, the film with a top dielectric layer showed superior electric characteristics. Further, although the sensitivity of the film decreased, the total electrical efficiency of the film improved as a result of the decrease in dark current. When a dielectric layer is deposited on a photoconductor, the properties of the photoconductor, such as hole-electron mobility, should be considered to improve the image quality in digital medical imaging application. In this study, we have thus demonstrated that the use of dielectric layer structures improves the performance of photoconductors.

Improvement in pixel signal uniformity of polycrystalline mercuric iodide films for digital X-ray imaging

We investigated polycrystalline mercuric iodide (HgI2) that exhibits uniform pixel signals for its use in digital X-ray imaging. To fabricate thin polycrystalline HgI2 films, the particle-in-binder (PIB) method is used because it enables the fabrication of X-ray conversion films at a low temperature and a normal pressure. Moreover, it has a large-scale deposition capacity at a low cost. Although the thin layers fabricated by the PIB method have such advantages, they are chemically unstable and show poor reproducibility and nonuniform X-ray response. To solve these problems, in this study, additional physical and chemical treatments were performed along with the PIB method after taking the size confinement effect of photoconductive particles into consideration. Morphological and electrical properties were measured to investigate the effects of the physical and chemical treatments.

Study on the feasibility of the HgI2 dosimeter for quality assurance of radiotherapy

In radiotherapy, a variety of detectors such as ionization chambers, films, TLDs, diodes, and OSL, are being used for quality assurance (QA). Owing to its high sensitivity and feasibility to operate at low voltages, silicon (Si) photoconductors, which are used as detection material of a diode, are currently being used as relative dosimeters. In addition, other materials such as amorphous selenium (a-Se), cadmium telluride (CdTe), lead iodide (PbI2), and mercury iodide (HgI2) were also being investigated for their feasibility as diagnostic radiation detector. Among these materials, HgI2 has been reported to show remarkable properties including high spatial resolution and high stopping power. Hence In this study, we have verified the feasibility of HgI2 dosimeter for quality assurance of radiotherapy. In order to fabricate the detector, HgI2 was mixed with TiO2 to minimize the signal reduction. Following this, the resulting mixture was deposited onto indium tin oxide (ITO) coated glass by particle-in binder (PIB) method. Finally, the top ITO electrode was coated by magnetron sputterring system. Subsequently, we measured the electrical properties generated by high-energy radiation from linear accelerator (LINAC), and analyzed the reproducibility, linearity, and percent depth dose (PDD) of the fabricated detoctor. In addition, we have determined the build-up materials in experimental setup, since the thickness of build-up region, where the secondary electron emission equilibrium occurs, changes depending on radiation energy. It was observed that the relative variations measured as standard deviation divided by the average value among repeated measurements was approximately 1%. Deviations from linearity are smaller than 5%. Finally, we compared the experimental data of the detector fabricated in this study with those of the farmer-type ionization chamber. Base on the results obtained from this study, it could be realized that HgI2 could be used as dosimeter for QA of radiotherapy.

Feasibility study of a multi-layer liquid-crystal-based non-pixel X-ray detector

The recent study of digital X-ray detectors in medical diagnostics has focused on high-resolution image acquisition. Digital X-ray detectors use either a direct or an indirect method of converting X-ray into an electric charge. Indirect systems have low resolution due to blurring of light from the scintillator. In contrast, direct systems have higher resolution than indirect systems, but they are expensive, and systems that have large areas are difficult. This paper proposes a new structure for a non-pixel detector in order to resolve these problems by constructing multiple layers, including photoconductor and liquid crystal (LC) cell layers. First, simulations were conducted to measure changes in the transmittance and electric field of the LC cell under different applied voltages and different thicknesses of a glass layer between the LC and the photoconductor. Subsequently, non-pixel X-ray films having an optimized structure were fabricated using the optimal glass thickness and voltage obtained from the simulation results. In a previous study, X-ray film was fabricated from an LC and a photoconductor by a single integrated production process. In this study, the fabrication process was divided into two steps to prevent damage to the X-ray conversion materials caused by the high temperature used to manufacture the LC cell. The photoconductor layer was fabricated by screen-printing at room temperature on the LC cell. HgI2 was used as the photoconductor material and an aluminum reflective layer was then deposited. The photoconductor was approximately 150–250μm thick. The linear range of LC twisting was acquired by measuring the transmittance-voltage curve; when a voltage of 1.3V to 2.2V is applied to the LC layer, the LC molecules can be twisted by 10%–90%. The charge generated in the photoconductor and the transmission efficiency of the LC were measured using the modulation potential. The results of this study indicate that an LC-based non-pixel detector is feasible for application in digital X-ray systems.

Mercury iodide flat panel radiation detector for simultaneous acquisition of static and moving image

Mercuric iodide deposited on flat panel thin film transistor (TFT) array is one of the best alternate photoconductive materials for direct digital X-ray detectors for both static and moving image application in medical imaging. The mercuric iodide is coated onto the array by a Particle-In-Binder (PIB) process and scaled up to the 7inch 8.5inch size required in common medical imaging application. A TFT array with a pixel pitch of 139microns was used for detector. Mercuric iodide coating thickness around 200 microns was tested with beam energy between 40kVp and 100kVp utilizing exposure ranges typical for both static and dynamic imaging. Detector performances were evaluated by obtained images. Mercuric iodide deposited on flat panel thin film transistor (TFT) array is shown to exhibit high sensitivity to X-rays, excellent spatial resolution and high Detective Quantum Efficiency (DQE). Especially it is quite suitable for moving image because of low image lag. Resolution tests on resolution target phantoms showed that resolution is limited to the Nyquist frequency for the 139 microns (resolution ~3.6lp/mm) pixel detectors. The ability to operate at low voltages (~100V) gives adequate dark currents for most application and allows low voltage electronics designs. Also the detector can use exceptionally low dose-rate X-ray illumination because of the very high X-ray sensitivity, which exceeds any other known X-ray detector material. The fabricated detector represents the most advanced photoconductor material available today for flat panel, high resolution, x-ray, medical detector, which alternates conventional a-Se technology.

Development and evaluation of multi-energy PbO dosimeter for quality assurance of image-guide radiation therapy devices

In radiation therapy, accurate radiotherapy treatment plan (RTP) reproduction is necessary to optimize the clinical results. Thus, attempts have recently been made to ensure high RTP reproducibility using image-guide radiation therapy (IGRT) technology. However, the clinical use of digital X-ray equipment requires extended quality assurance (QA) for those devices, since the IGRT device quality determines the precision of intensity-modulated radiation therapy. The study described in this paper was focused on developing a multi-energy PbO dosimeter for IGRT device QA. The Schottky-type polycrystalline PbO dosimeter with a Au/PbO/ITO structure was evaluated by comparing its response coincidence, dose linearity, measurement reproducibility, linear attenuation coefficient, and percent depth dose with those of Si diode and standard ionization chamber dosimeters.

Feasibility study of a lead monoxide-based dosimeter for quality assurance in radiotherapy

Lately, cancer has been treated using high-energy radiation, and this requires highly reliable treatment plans. Therefore, a dosimeter with excellent performance, which is capable of precise dose measurement, is critical. In current clinical practices, an ionization chamber and diode utilizing the ionization reaction mechanism are widely used. Several studies have been carried out to determine optimal materials for the detector in a dosimeter to enable diagnostic imaging. Recently, studies with lead monoxide, which was shown to have low drift current and high resolving power at a high bias, were reported with the dosimeter exhibiting a fast response time against incident photons. This research aims to investigate the feasibility of a lead monoxide-based dosimeter for QA (quality assurance) in radiotherapy. In this paper, we report that the manufactured dosimeter shows similar linearity to a silicon diode and demonstrates similar characteristics in terms of PDD (percent depth dose) results for the thimble ionization chamber. Based on these results, it is demonstrated that the lead monoxide-based dosimeter complies with radiotherapy QA requirements, namely rapid response time, dose linearity, dose rate independence. Thus, we expect the lead monoxide-based dosimeter to be used commercially in the future.