L. Alan Prather

The Decline of Plant Collecting in the United States: A Threat to the Infrastructure of Biodiversity Studies

Abstract Collections of plant specimens are the basic infrastructure for all studies of plant diversity, but there is concern that plant collecting is in decline. We acquired collection data from a diverse sample of 71 herbaria to test whether there is a decrease in rates of local collecting in the United States. The recorded data were the decade of collection for all specimens of nine exemplar genera from the local region of the herbarium. All analyses showed evidence of a decline in local collecting. We found that the temporal pattern of collecting varied considerably from herbarium to herbarium, but that more herbaria showed a decreasing trend than an increasing trend. The total accumulation of specimens is in decline and only 21% of the sampled herbaria reached their peaks in local collecting activity in the last 20 years. Furthermore, two thirds of the herbaria acquired fewer locally-collected specimens in the last two decades than in the prior two. These trends were consistent over all size classes of herbaria and over herbaria from all regions, though they were less severe in the Mountain region herbaria. Tests for bias indicated that our sample of herbaria was more active than typical, thus our conclusions should be considered a conservative estimate of decline.

Monophyly and Phylogeny of Monarda (Lamiaceae): Evidence from the Internal Transcribed Spacer (ITS) Region of Nuclear Ribosomal DNA

Abstract The phylogenetic relationships of the 16 species of Monarda (Lamiaceae) were investigated using sequences of the internal transcribed spacer regions of nuclear ribosomal DNA. Thymus and Mentha were used as outgroups, and Blephilia, Clinopodium, Conradina, Hesperozygis, Monardella, Pycnanthemum, and Ziziphora were included in the ingroup to test the monophyly of Monarda. Two parsimony searches were performed after removing redundant sequences from the analysis: one with indels scored as missing and a second with indels treated as binary characters. Both searches yielded congruent results, but the treatment of indels as binary characters resulted in considerably more resolution within Monarda. There was strong support for the monophyly of Monarda and a close relationship was found between Monarda, Blephilia, and Pycnanthemum. The molecular phylogeny was completely congruent with the infrageneric classification of the genus. Our results were consistent with hypotheses of hybridization between M. fistulosa and M. lindheimeri in Texas. Despite considerable morphological variation among many species, especially in floral characters, little molecular diversification was found in those same species groups. Intraspecific polymorphism in ITS sequence was found in over half the species examined, and may be attributable to ancestral polymorphism, hybridization, or detection of paralogous loci. Communicating Editor: Jim Smith

Implications of the Decline in Plant Collecting for Systematic and Floristic Research

In a companion paper in this issue, we have shown that plant collecting in the U.S. is in decline (Prather et al. 2004). We focused on the U.S. only because it was relatively easy for us to measure collecting there, but we are concerned that the decline in collecting may be pervasive worldwide. Because specimens are the fun damental records of biodiversity, we believe that this has serious ramifications in many arenas, particularly in systematic and floristic research, but also in conser vation biology, land management, and education, to name only the most obvious. Here we elaborate on the importance of collecting, even in the United States where the flora is relatively well-known. We further discuss some of the many causes of the decline, and encourage the systematics community to advocate con tinued plant collecting. Curators of collections and floristic researchers are

Polemoniaceae phylogeny and classification: implications of sequence data from the chloroplast gene ndhF

The chloroplast gene ndhF was used to study phylogenetic relationships of the Polemoniaceae at two levels: among members of the Ericales and among genera of the family. Sequence data for interfamilial analyses consisted of 2266 bp for 14 members of the Ericales, including four species of the Polemoniaceae, plus three outgroup taxa. The Polemoniaceae were found to be related to Diospyros, Fouquieria, the Primulales, Rhododendron, and Impatiens, but relationships among taxa were generally not well supported. The precise position of the Polemoniaceae within the Ericales remains obscure. Data for intrafamilial analyses consisted of 1031 bp for 27 species of the Polemoniaceae, including at least one species from most genera of the family, plus five outgroup taxa. A single most parsimonious tree was identified. The analyses suggested that subfamily Cobaeoideae, excluding Loeselia, is monophyletic and that Huthia is sister to Cantua. Acanthogilia was sister to the remainder of subfamily Cobaeoideae. Subfamily Polemonioideae plus Loeselia formed four subclades that were strongly supported as monophyletic and represent the major lineages of the subfamily.

The Lichen Collection of Henry Imshaug at the Michigan State University Herbarium (msc)

Abstract The lichen collection assembled by Dr. Henry Imshaug at the herbarium of Michigan State University (msc) is described. It is not only one of the largest in North America, but is notable also for its geographic range, including important collections from the Caribbean and several southern hemisphere island groups. Until recently this collection was not readily accessible, but it is now fully available to researchers through loans and visits.

Phylogeny of Cobaea (Polemoniaceae) Based on Sequence Data from the ITS Region of Nuclear Ribosomal DNA

The phylogenetic relationships of 16 of the 18 species of the neotropical genus Cobaea (Pole- moniaceae) were investigated using sequences of the ITS1 and ITS2 regions of nuclear ribosomal DNA. Can- tua and Bonplandia were used as outgroups. Six most-parsimonious trees (length = 558 steps, CI excluding uninformative characters = 0.688, RI = 0.875) were produced, and support for most branches, based on boot- strap and decay analyses, was quite strong. Insertion/deletion events provide further support for some clades. There are two unresolved nodes in the strict consensus tree, and one of the unresolved nodes is among samples of one species. The ITS phylogeny suggests that two of the three sections of Cobaea are not mono- phyletic; the third is monotypic. The three characters used to distinguish the sections, corolla lobe shape, inflo- rescence position, and stamen length, were of questionable utility in sectional circumscription. The genus Cobaea consists of 18 species occurring mainly in montane cloud forests from central Peru to northern Mexico, and is one of the few tropical genera of the Polemoniaceae. The genus is well- defined and easily distinguished from other genera in the Polemoniaceae by a number of synapomor- phies: a scandent habit; pinnately compound leaves with the terminal leaflet modified into a tendril; nearly free calyx segments; septicidally dehiscent capsules; and very large (102-223 ,um), pantopo- rate, reticulate pollen (Prather, in press). Cobaea is especially notable because of the remarkable diver- sity in floral form among its species (Fig. 1), even when compared with similar sized or larger genera

Natural History Collections: Teaching About Biodiversity Across Time, Space, and Digital Platforms

Abstract Natural history collections offer unique physical and virtual opportunities for formal and informal progressive learning. Collections are unique data in that they each represent a biological record at a single place and time that cannot be obtained by any other method. Collections-based experiences lead to an increased understanding of and substantive interaction with the living world. Global biological diversity and changes in that diversity are directly tracked through specimens in collections, regardless of whether changes are ancient or recent. We discuss how collections, specimens, and the data associated with them, can be critical components linking nature and scientific inquiry. Specimens are the basic tools for educating students and interested citizens through direct or virtual contact with the diversity of collections. Such interactions include instruction in a formal classroom setting, volunteering to gather and curate collections, and informal presentations at coffee shops. We emphasize how the recent surge in specimen-based digitization initiatives has resulted in unprecedented access to a wealth of biodiversity information and how this availability vastly expands the reach of natural history collections. The emergence of online databases enables scientists and the public to utilize the specimens and associated data contained in natural history collections to address global, regional, and local issues related to biodiversity in a way that was unachievable a decade ago.

The conserved nature and taxonomic utility of pollen morphology in Cantua (Polemoniaceae)

Pollen exine morphology of nine of the ten species of Cantua (Polemoniaceae) is examined using light and scanning electron microscopy. A total of 28 specimens of C. bicolor, C. buxifolia, C. candelilla, C. cuzcoensis, C. flexuosa, C. pyrifolia, C. quercifolia, C. volcanica, and an as yet undescribed species (Cantua sp. nov.) are examined using either fresh or herbarium material. Pollen grains are found to be spheroidal, pantoporate, and quite large; mean diameter varies from 62 to 87 μm. Mean number of pores varies from 4.5 to 21.2 and mean pore size varies from 4.86 to 12.40 μm. Pollen grains of all species have insulate semitectate sexines. This feature distinguishes the pollen of Cantua species from the remainder of the Polemoniaceae. Insulae are evenly distributed over the surface of the pollen grain, with the exception of C. flexuosa and occasionally C. buxifolia, where insulae are more sparsely and haphazardly distributed. The majority of the species examined have irregularly shaped tectal insulae, with the exception of the large rounded insulae in C. quercifolia and the elongated narrow insulae in C. volcanica. Cantua quercifolia and C. volcanica have supratectal verrucae, a possible synapomorphy. In comparison to close relatives, the pollen grains of Cantua are evolutionarily conserved, and show little variation among species.

A new species ofPhlox (Polemoniaceae) from northern Mexico with an expanded circumscription of subsectionDivaricatae

Phlox pattersonii, a new species from the northern Sierra Madre of Coahuila and Nuevo Leon, Mexico is described. It is morphologically similar toP. pilosa var.ozarkana of the east-central United States, but differs in its suffruticose habit, alternate upper leaves, many nodes, and summer blooming period. None of the subsections ofPhlox can accommodate the new species as currently circumscribed, though it is clearly allied to subsectionsDivaricatae andDrummondianae. A new circumscription of subsect.Divaricatae is proposed which includes subsect.Drummondianae andP. pattersonii.

Three new species of Cobaea (Polemoniaceae)

Revisionary work has revealed three new species ofCobaea:Cobaea flava of northern Peru,C. paneroi of central Mexico, andC. rotundiflora of Guatemala and extreme southeastern Mexico.Cobaea flava is most similar toC. campanulata and differs mainly in its pedicel pubescence, corolla coloration, and stamen position.Cobaea paneroi is among the large-flowered species (theCobaea scandens group) but is easily distinguished from these by its long-acuminate calyx segments.Cobaea rotundiflora most closely resemblesC. triflora. It differs mainly in its corolla coloration and wider, pubescent calyx segments.ResumenEstudios taxonómicos en el géneroCobaea han revelado la existencia de tres especies huevas para la ciencia:Cobaea flava del norte del Perú,C. paneroi de México central, yC. rotundiflora de Guatemala y el extremo suroriental de México.Cobaea flava es muy similar aC. campanulata, de la que difiere principalmente por la pubescencia del pedicelo, el color de la corola y la posición de los estambres.Cobaea paneroi, se encuentra entre la especies de flores grandes (grupoCobaea scandens), pero se distingue facilmente de éstas por sus segmentos del cáliz que son largamente acuminados.Cobaea rotundiflora se asemeja principalmente aC. triflora de la que se diferencia principalmente por el color de la colora y la pubescencia de los segmentos del cáliz.