L. Moliner

Design and evaluation of the MAMMI dedicated breast PET

PURPOSE A breast dedicated positron emission tomography (PET) scanner has been developed based on monolithic LYSO crystals coupled to position sensitive photomultiplier tubes (PSPMTs). In this study, we describe the design of the PET system and report on its performance evaluation. METHODS MAMMI is a breast PET scanner based on monolithic LYSO crystals. It consists of 12 compact modules with a transaxial field of view (FOV) of 170 mm in diameter and 40 mm axial FOV that translates to cover up to 170 mm. The patient lies down in a prone position that facilitates maximum breast elongation. Quantitative performance analysis of the calculated method for the attenuation correction specifically developed for MAMMI, and based on PET image segmentation, has also been conducted in this evaluation. In order to fully determine the MAMMI prototypes performance, we have adapted the measurements suggested for National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) NU 2-2007 and NU 4-2008 protocol tests, as they are defined for whole-body and small animal PET scanners, respectively. RESULTS Spatial resolutions of 1.6, 1.8, and 1.9 mm were measured in the axial, radial, and tangential directions, respectively. A scatter fraction of 20.8% was obtained and the maximum NEC was determined to be 25 kcps at 44 MBq. The average sensitivity of the system was observed to be 1% for an energy window of (250 keV-750 keV) and a maximum absolute sensitivity of 1.8% was measured at the FOV center. CONCLUSIONS The overall performance of the MAMMI reported on this evaluation quantifies its ability to produce high quality PET images. Spatial resolution values below 3 mm were measured in most of the FOV. Only the radial component of spatial resolution exceeds the 3 mm at radial positions larger than 60 mm. This study emphasizes the need for standardized testing methodologies for dedicated breast PET systems similar to NEMA standards for whole-body and small animal PET scanners.

Small animal PET scanner based on monolithic LYSO crystals: Performance evaluation

PURPOSE The authors have developed a small animal Positron emission tomography (PET) scanner based on monolithic LYSO crystals coupled to multi-anode photomultiplier tubes (MA-PMTs). In this study, the authors report on the design, calibration procedure, and performance evaluation of a PET system that the authors have developed using this innovative nonpixelated detector design. METHODS The scanner is made up of eight compact modules forming an octagon with an axial field of view (FOV) of 40 mm and a transaxial FOV of 80 mm diameter. In order to fully determine its performance, a recently issued National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) NU-4 protocol, specifically developed for small animal PET scanners, has been followed. By measuring the width of light distribution collected in the MA-PMT the authors are able to determine depth of interaction (DOI), thus making the proper identification of lines of response (LORs) with large incidence angles possible. PET performances are compared with those obtained with currently commercially available small animal PET scanners. RESULTS At axial center when the point-like source is located at 5 mm from the radial center, the spatial resolution measured was 1.65, 1.80, and 1.86 mm full width at half maximum (FWHM) for radial, tangential, and axial image profiles, respectively. A system scatter fraction of 7.5% (mouse-like phantom) and 13% (rat-like phantom) was obtained, while the maximum noise equivalent count rate (NECR) was 16.9 kcps at 12.7 MBq (0.37 MBq/ml) for mouse-like phantom and 12.8 kcps at 12.4 MBq (0.042 MBq/ml) for rat-like phantom The peak absolute sensitivity in the center of the FOV is 2% for a 30% peak energy window. Several animal images are also presented. CONCLUSIONS The overall performance of our small animal PET is comparable to that obtained with much more complex crystal pixelated PET systems. Moreover, the new proposed PET produces high-quality images suitable for studies with small animals.

ALBIRA: A small animal PET/SPECT/CT imaging system

PURPOSE The authors have developed a trimodal PET∕SPECT∕CT scanner for small animal imaging. The gamma ray subsystems are based on monolithic crystals coupled to multianode photomultiplier tubes (MA-PMTs), while computed tomography (CT) comprises a commercially available microfocus x-ray tube and a CsI scintillator 2D pixelated flat panel x-ray detector. In this study the authors will report on the design and performance evaluation of the multimodal system. METHODS X-ray transmission measurements are performed based on cone-beam geometry. Individual projections were acquired by rotating the x-ray tube and the 2D flat panel detector, thus making possible a transaxial field of view (FOV) of roughly 80 mm in diameter and an axial FOV of 65 mm for the CT system. The single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) component has a dual head detector geometry mounted on a rotating gantry. The distance between the SPECT module detectors can be varied in order to optimize specific user requirements, including variable FOV. The positron emission tomography (PET) system is made up of eight compact modules forming an octagon with an axial FOV of 40 mm and a transaxial FOV of 80 mm in diameter. The main CT image quality parameters (spatial resolution and uniformity) have been determined. In the case of the SPECT, the tomographic spatial resolution and system sensitivity have been evaluated with a (99m)Tc solution using single-pinhole and multi-pinhole collimators. PET and SPECT images were reconstructed using three-dimensional (3D) maximum likelihood and ordered subset expectation maximization (MLEM and OSEM) algorithms developed by the authors, whereas the CT images were obtained using a 3D based FBP algorithm. RESULTS CT spatial resolution was 85 μm while a uniformity of 2.7% was obtained for a water filled phantom at 45 kV. The SPECT spatial resolution was better than 0.8 mm measured with a Derenzo-like phantom for a FOV of 20 mm using a 1-mm pinhole aperture collimator. The full width at half-maximum PET radial spatial resolution at the center of the field of view was 1.55 mm. The SPECT system sensitivity for a FOV of 20 mm and 15% energy window was 700 cps∕MBq (7.8 × 10(-2)%) using a multi-pinhole equipped with five apertures 1 mm in diameter, whereas the PET absolute sensitivity was 2% for a 350-650 keV energy window and a 5 ns timing window. Several animal images are also presented. CONCLUSIONS The new small animal PET∕SPECT∕CT proposed here exhibits high performance, producing high-quality images suitable for studies with small animals. Monolithic design for PET and SPECT scintillator crystals reduces cost and complexity without significant performance degradation.

A PET Design Based on SiPM and Monolithic LYSO Crystals: Performance Evaluation

A new small animal PET based on SiPM and monolithic LYSO crystals has been developed. Eight detector modules form the PET ring, each mounting an array of 12 × 12 SiPMs coupled to a readout providing the summed signals of the pixels on each of the 12 rows and 12 columns of the SiPM array. This design makes it possible to accurately determine the centroid of the scintillation light distribution with about 1.6 mm full width at half maximum (FWHM) resolution without correction for the 1 mm source size, and the photon depth of interaction (DOI) with nearly 2 mm FWHM. This single ring PET system has a homogeneous spatial resolution across the entire 80 mm transaxial field of view (FOV) of about 1 mm FWHM. The noise equivalent count rate (NECR) peak is estimated to occur at around 39.2 MBq with a rate of approximately 82.7 kcps for the mouse-like phantom and 22 kcps at 48.1 MBq for the rat-like phantom. Following the NEMA protocol, the peak absolute sensitivity in the center of the FOV is 2.8% for a 30% peak energy window. A pilot test injecting NaF to a mouse of 20 grams is also presented. Finally, the PET ring has been tested in front of a high field 15.2 T Magnetic Resonance (MR). No significant variation on energy and spatial resolution across the FOV has been observed due to the presence of the magnetic field.

Performance characteristics of the MAMMI PEMT scanner based on NEMA NU 2–2007

The system MAMMI (acronym for MAMmography with Molecular Imaging) is a PET prototype device specifically designed for the detection of breast cancer. It is based on continuous LYSO crystals coupled to Position Sensitive Photomultiplier Tubes (PSPMTs). The scanner consists of twelve compact modules assembled on a ring configuration with an aperture of 186 mm. The scanner transaxial Field of View (FoV) is as large as 170 mm in diameter whereas the axial FoV can cover up to 170 mm recording several frames which are software overlapped. Most of the performance characteristic tests according to the National Electrical Manofacturers Association (NEMA) NU 2–2007 are specially designed to whole body PET scanners and, thus, present a dimensional limitation on a dedicated breast PET. Also, NEMA NU 4–2008 standards cannot be either conducted because are performed for small animal PETs. In this paper, we propose certain changes based on both standards, as are the dimensions of the phantoms and sources. The results showed a spatial resolution at the centre of the transaxial and axial FoVs of 1.90 1.82 and 1.63 mm in the radial, tangential and axial profiles, respectively. The system sensitivity was measured to be, on average and using different line sources and metallic sleeves, 0.77%. When using a 22Na point source, a value of up to 1% was observed. For a specific breast phantom, the scatter fraction was determined to be 6.7% and the peak noise equivalent count rate, 25 kcps at 176 MBq/ml. Note that these measures were carried out wiyh a 50% peak energy window and and a coincidence timing window of 5 ns.

Calibration and Performance Tests of Detectors for Laser-Accelerated Protons

We present the calibration and performance tests carried out with two detectors for intense proton pulses accelerated by lasers. Most of the procedures were realized with proton beams of 0.46-5.60 MeV from a tandem accelerator. One approach made use of radiochromic films, for which we calibrated the relation between optical density and energy deposition over more than three orders of magnitude. The validity of these results and of our analysis algorithms has been confirmed by controlled irradiation of film stacks and reconstruction of the total beam charge for strongly non-uniform beam profiles. For the spectral analysis of protons from repeated laser shots, we have designed an online monitor based on a plastic scintillator. The resulting signal from a photomultiplier directly measured on a fast oscilloscope is especially useful for time-of-flight applications. Variable optical filters allow for suppression of saturation and an extension of the dynamic range. With pulsed proton beams we have tested the detector response to a wide range of beam intensities from single particles to 3 ×105 protons per 100 ns time interval.

3-D photon impact determination using fitting approaches to the Light Distribution

In Positron Emission Tomography (PET) detectors based in monolithic scintillators, the spatial resolution is limited by the accuracy in the determination of the interaction coordinates from the 511 keV photons. When linear algorithms, such as Center of Gravity (CoG) are used a poor estimation of the interaction positions, specially towards the edges is the major limitation in spatial resolution. A novel PET detector block, where complete information of Light Distribution (LD) for each event is available, allows to fit each event to a theoretical model, improving the estimation of the interaction coordinates, and minimizing border effects. In this work, by means of the LD fitting approach, we were able to obtain an average spatial resolution of 1.2 mm in the entire scintillator volume and an average depth of interaction (DOI) resolution of 1.5 mm. Moreover, splitting the data in three DOI regions, we obtained an average spatial resolution of 1.0 mm at the DOI region closer to the photodetectors. Finally, it is remarkable that the implementation of the LD fitting approach is capable of processing up to 50 kcps in a octacore system.

Minimization of Parallax Error in Dedicated Breast PET

The increase of the detector thickness and the incidence angle of impinging photons permits an enhancement of sensitivity in positron emission tomography (PET) scanners. But also increases the parallax error and leads to a worsening of spatial resolution. Instead of introducing hardware modifications in the readout electronics or in the detector, we propose in this work to model the photon penetration depth in the detector material and to account for this effect during the image reconstruction. The validation of the model was based on experimental measurements with the MAMMI breast dedicated PET. It consists of twelve detector modules of monolithic LYSO scintillators. A point-like source was acquired at several radial positions across the field of view. The performance of the model was analyzed in terms of position accuracy and spatial resolution. Full width at half maximum (FWHM) average improvement values of 1.0 mm (radial), 0.4 mm (tangential), and 0.3 mm (axial) have been measured when the photon penetration depth was taken into account. The use of the model proposed in this work allows us to design PET detectors with improved sensitivity while maintaining the spatial resolution of the scanner.

Expectation maximization (EM) algorithms using polar symmetries for computed tomography (CT) image reconstruction

We suggest a symmetric-polar pixellation scheme which makes possible a reduction of the computational cost for expectation maximization (EM) iterative algorithms. The proposed symmetric-polar pixellation allows us to deal with 3D images as a whole problem without dividing the 3D problem into 2D slices approach. Performance evaluation of each approach in terms of stability and image quality is presented. Exhaustive comparisons between all approaches were conducted in a 2D based image reconstruction model. From these 2D approaches, that showing the best performances were finally implemented and evaluated in a 3D based image reconstruction model. Comparison to 3D images reconstructed with FBP is also presented. Although the algorithm is presented in the context of computed tomography (CT) image reconstruction, it can be applied to any other tomographic technique as well, due to the fact that the only requirement is a scanning geometry involving measurements of an object under different projection angles. Real data have been acquired with a small animal (CT) scanner to verify the proposed mathematical description of the CT system.

EM tomographic image reconstruction using polar voxels

The splitting of the field of view (FOV) in polar voxels is pro posed in this work in order to obtain an efficient description of a cone-beam compu ted tomography (CT) scanner. The proposed symmetric-polar pixelation makes it possible to deal with the 3D iterative reconstruction considering a number of projections and voxel sizes typical in CT preclinical imaging. The performance comparison, between the filtered backproje ction (FBP) and 3D maximum likelihood expectation maximization (MLEM) reconstruction algorithm for CT, is presented. It is feasible to achieve the hardware spatial resolution limi t with the considered pixelation. The image quality achieved with MLEM and FBP have been analyzed. The results obtained with both algorithms in clinical images have been compared too. Although the polar-symmetric pixelation is presented in the context of CT imaging, it can be applied to any other tomographic technique as long as the scan comprises the measurement of an object under several projection angles.