Lalita A. Manrai

Effects of cultural-context, gender, and acculturation on perceptions of work versus social/leisure time usage

Abstract Findings of an empirical study support the hypotheses that time usage patterns for work versus social/leisure activities differ across individuals originating from low-context cultures of Western Europe and individuals originating from high-context cultures of Asia, Japan, the Middle East, and South America. Perceptions of work time were higher (i.e., more work hours per day) in high-context cultures and perceptions of social/leisure time were higher (i.e., more social/leisure hours per day) in low-context cultures. Such effects of cultural-context were more dominant for men than for women. The findings further indicate that these differences get narrowed with high acculturation in U.S. culture. The theoretical rationale for these hypotheses is developed by integrating concepts of time activity, time priority, and time setting in a summary conceptual model. Implications of results for marketing to subcultural as well as cross-cultural groups are discussed with particular reference to the high-context cultures of developing countries that tend to handle time in a polychronic manner compared to low-context cultures of developed countries (with the exception of Japan) that handle time in a monochronic manner.

Interactive effects of country of origin and product category on product evaluations

This research examined the effects of country of origin and product category on product evaluations for 21 countries and 18 products. As hypothesized, product evaluations were highest for highly-developed countries, followed by newly-industrialized, newly-marketizing, and developing-country groups. Further, the product-category and country-of-origin effects interacted such that, depending upon the country group, different product categories received more, equal, or less favorable evaluations compared to other product categories. Several variables and processes underlying these effects are identified and integrated into a conceptual model.

How green‐claim strength and country disposition affect product evaluation and company image

Green advertising is defined as the advertising that emphasizes the environmental friendliness of the product. Attributes such as degradability, recyclability, lower pollution et cetera are considered to be environmentally friendly. The research reported in this article addresses how the strength of a green claim, for example, the extent of pollution reduction claimed in an advertisement for a new automobile and the consumers country disposition, that is, the consumers attitude toward the country of origin of the automobile, interactively affected the product evaluation in terms of its greenness and company image in terms of its green consciousness. Product evaluation and company image were more favorable for consumers with highly positive country disposition than for consumers with less positive country disposition when the green claim was moderate in strength. However, when the green claim was extremely low or extremely high in strength, the reverse was true. Theoretical rationale for these findings draws upon several areas of research, for example, latitude of acceptance/rejection, assimilation/contrast effects, social cognition, country of origin, and Heiders balance theory. Managerial implications of the findings and future research directions are discussed.

A cross‐cultural comparison of style in Eastern European emerging markets

Torn between socially‐mandated dress conformity and the glitter of Western designers, consumers in Eastern Europe have always been interested in Western style. After the fall of Communism, fashion, led by Western brands, quickly conquered consumers, while local manufacturers started to offer quality goods. Exposure to Western brands and advertising affected consumer values: former collectivist values are gradually being replaced by individualism. These changes are occurring at different rates and vary in different market segments. Under these conditions, a study was conducted in Bulgaria, Hungary and Romania, comparing respondents on two dimensions of style: fashion‐consciousness (capturing individualism) and dress‐conformity (capturing collectivism). The findings support the hypothesis that fashion consciousness is highest for Westernized Hungarian respondents, who have the highest income and can afford fashionable clothing. Dress conformity was highest for Bulgarian respondents, who had setbacks in adopting a market economy and are less Westernized. The findings support demographic differences predictions: younger individuals are more fashion conscious than older individuals, whereas dress conformity is higher for older than for younger individuals. Finally, men are more fashion conscious than women. The findings on gender differences in dress conformity are mixed. Marketing implications of these findings and future research directions are discussed.

Tscale: A new multidimensional scaling procedure based on tversky's contrast model

Tverskys contrast model of proximity was initially formulated to account for the observed violations of the metric axioms often found in empirical proximity data. This set-theoretic approach models the similarity/dissimilarity between any two stimuli as a linear (or ratio) combination of measures of the common and distinctive features of the two stimuli. This paper proposes a new spatial multidimensional scaling (MDS) procedure called TSCALE based on Tverskys linear contrast model for the analysis of generally asymmetric three-way, two-mode proximity data. We first review the basic structure of Tverskys conceptual contrast model. A brief discussion of alternative MDS procedures to accommodate asymmetric proximity data is also provided. The technical details of the TSCALE procedure are given, as well as the program options that allow for the estimation of a number of different model specifications. The nonlinear estimation framework is discussed, as are the results of a modest Monte Carlo analysis. Two consumer psychology applications are provided: one involving perceptions of fast-food restaurants and the other regarding perceptions of various competitive brands of cola soft-drinks. Finally, other applications and directions for future research are mentioned.

Marketing in Romania: The Challenges of the Transition from a Centrally‐planned Economy to a Consumer‐oriented Economy

Describes the contrast between the state of marketing in Romania before and after the fall of communism. Specifically evaluates the changes in the marketing mix components from 1989 to 1993. Presents details of a survey in Bucharest examining how Romanian consumers perceive the changes taking place in the market in terms of product, price, promotion and distribution. Gives recommendations for marketing in Romania in the future.

Public policy relating to consumer comprehension of television commercials: A review and some empirical results

The utility of disclosure supers in television commercials in providing consumers with useful information is investigated. First the role of the various regulatory agencies in monitoring disclosure supers is reviewed. Next we review the role of consumer behavior theory in explaining how consumers process disclosure information. Then we develop and test hypotheses relating to four format aspects of disclosure supers. The findings supported the hypotheses. Viewers demonstrated lower levels of comprehension for disclosure information relative to information in the body copy of the commercials. Comprehension of disclosure information increased when typeface of disclosure was larger and when a voice-over accompanied the disclosure, but decreased when volume of information in disclosure supers increased. The implications of the findings for public policy are discussed.ZusammenfassungDer Beitrag befa\t sich mit dem Nutzen von Informationsauflagen bei Werbespots im Fernsehen, die dem Konsumenten nützliche Informationen zur Verfügung stellen sollen. Zunächst werden die verschiedenen Institutionen geschildert, die die Befolgung von Informationsauflagen überwachen. Als nächstes wird die Bedeutung der Theorie des Konsumentenverhaltens behandelt, wenn es darum geht, die Verarbeitung des Inhaltes von Informationsauflagen durch die Konsumenten zu erklären. Anschlie\end entwickeln die Autoren einige Hypothesen über die Wirkung unterschiedlicher Gestaltungsbedingungen auf die Informationsübermittlung. Diese Hypothesen werden durch die Befunde im wesentlichen bestätigt: Der Inhalt von Informationsauflagen wird insgesamt weniger gut verstanden als der eigentliche Inhalt der Werbebotschaft. Das Verständnis der Informationsauflage ist höher bei grö\erem Schriftgrad. Es ist auch höher, wenn ihr Inhalt nicht allein in Schriftform bezeichnet wird, sondern wenn er zusätzlich auch noch gesprochen wird. Es ist allerdings geringer bei grö\erer Informationsmenge. Abschlie\end werden einige verbraucherpolitische Empfehlungen gegeben.

Marketing opportunities and challenges in emerging markets in the new millennium: a conceptual framework and analysis

This paper develops a conceptual framework to analyze the significant events and developments in the recent past in terms of the seven major factors influencing international marketing. The framework identifies the type of environmental forces, predominant world region and impact of the event in terms of opportunities/benefits and challenges/threats. Next, each of the four papers included in this special issue is mapped onto this framework. Finally, the overall contributions of the special issue and the directions for future research are identified.

How the Fall of the Iron Curtain Has Affected Consumers' Perceptions of Urban and Rural Quality of Life in Romania

Summary Marketing and quality of life (QOL) literature is reviewed to conceptualize a model of the impact of marketing activity on QOL. This model outlines how the four elements of the marketing mix affect the life domain of shopping, dealing with the acquisition, possession, use, and consumption of goods. In turn, four strategic considerations/indicators connecting this life domain with QOL are identified: the four As linking marketing with QOL -i.e., appearance of goods in the market, and awareness, availability, and affordability of goods for consumers. A large-scale field study in urban and rural Romania, a country undergoing rapid marketization, was conducted to test hypotheses and to validate secondary data findings relating availability and affordability of goods with QOL for urban and rural consumers. The findings support the predictions that availability and affordability are positively related to QOL. Secondary data findings concerning changes in the availability and affordability of goods and services, and hypotheses concerning changes in the QOL in Romania between the years 1989 and 1993/1994 were also validated and supported. The findings indicate that availability has improved during this period, whereas afford-ability has decreased. Overall, as hypothesized, these changes have resulted in the deterioration of QOL in Romania in todays marketizing economy, as compared to the planned economy, before the revolution. Finally, urban versus rural differences in the impact of marketization in terms of changes in the availability and affordability and in QOL are also studied.

A country-cluster analysis of the distribution and promotion infrastructure in Central and Eastern Europe

A country-cluster scheme is developed in this paper classifying 18 countries of Central and Eastern Europe in terms of their overall attractiveness for international marketing. These 18 countries include Albania, Belarus, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Macedonia, Moldova, Poland, Romania, Serbia-Montenegro, Slovakia, Slovenia and Ukraine. When companies examine and evaluate the potential countries for international marketing opportunity, they not only look at the demand potential of the country but also the logistics of marketing operations in the country. While all 4 Ps of marketing are regulated by the government, the availability of infrastructure for efficient distribution and promotion of products is a critical consideration for selection of a country. This is so because compared to the other 2 Ps of marketing mix, i.e. product and price decisions, the success of distribution (place) and promotion decisions is relatively more out of the control of marketers, being tied to the availability of infrastructure. Accordingly, this country-cluster scheme is developed in two stages. First, selected demographic and economic indicators are analyzed to asses the overall market potential and economic strength of the country. Next, several factors related to distribution and promotion of goods in these countries are examined in detail. Finally, the two sets of classification schemes above are combined to develop a two-dimensional country-cluster matrix (demographic-economic as the first dimension and distribution-promotion as the second dimension). The aggregate analysis reveals three country clusters. Cluster 1, the most promising group of countries (attractive on both dimensions) includes Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Slovakia and Ukraine. Cluster 3, the least promising group of countries (attractive on neither dimension) includes Albania, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Macedonia and Serbia-Montenegro. Cluster 2 includes countries which are either moderate in terms of attractiveness on both dimensions or countries with a trade-off between two dimensions (one high, other low). Cluster 2 includes Belarus, Bulgaria, Croatia, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova and Slovenia. Implications for international marketing and future research directions are discussed.