Lance L. Wallace

Infiltration of outdoor ultrafine particles into a test house.

Ultrafine particles (UFP) (<100 nm) have been related to adverse human health effects such as oxidative stress and cardiovascular mortality. However, human exposure to particles of outdoor origin is heavily dependent on their infiltration into homes. The infiltration factor (Finf) and its variation as a function of several factors becomes of enormous importance in epidemiological studies. The objective of this study is to investigate the transport of UFP into a residential building and to determine the functional dependence of infiltration on particle size and air change rate. A secondary objective was to estimate the values of the penetration coefficient P and composite deposition rate kcomp that enter into the definition of Finf. Using continuous measurements of indoor and outdoor concentrations of size-resolved particles ranging from 5 to 100 nm in a manufactured test house, particle penetration through the building, composite deposition, and the resulting value of Finf were calculated for two cases: closed windows and one window open 7.5 cm. Finf ranged from close to 0 (particles<10 nm) to 0.3 (particles>80 nm) with windows closed and from 0 to 0.6 with one window open. The penetration coefficient (closed windows) increased from about 0.2 for 10-nm particles to an asymptote near 0.6 for particles from 30-100 nm. Open window penetration coefficients were higher, ranging from 0.6 to 0.8. Closed-window composite deposition rates, which included losses to the furnace filter and to the ductwork as well as to interior surfaces, monotonically decreased from levels of about 1.5 h(-1) for 10-nm particles to 0.3 h(-1) for 100-nm particles. For the open-window case, composite deposition rates were higher for particles<20 nm, reaching values of 3.5 h(-1). Mean standard errors associated with estimates of P, kcomp, and Finf for two series of measurements ranged from 1.0% to 4.4%.

Estimation of bias with the single‐zone assumption in measurement of residential air exchange using the perfluorocarbon tracer gas method

Residential air exchange rates (AERs) are vital in understanding the temporal and spatial drivers of indoor air quality (IAQ). Several methods to quantify AERs have been used in IAQ research, often with the assumption that the home is a single, well-mixed air zone. Since 2005, Health Canada has conducted IAQ studies across Canada in which AERs were measured using the perfluorocarbon tracer (PFT) gas method. Emitters and detectors of a single PFT gas were placed on the main floor to estimate a single-zone AER (AER1z). In three of these studies, a second set of emitters and detectors were deployed in the basement or second floor in approximately 10% of homes for a two-zone AER estimate (AER2z). In total, 287 daily pairs of AER2z and AER1z estimates were made from 35 homes across three cities. In 87% of the cases, AER2z was higher than AER1z. Overall, the AER1z estimates underestimated AER2z by approximately 16% (IQR: 5–32%). This underestimate occurred in all cities and seasons and varied in magnitude seasonally, between homes, and daily, indicating that when measuring residential air exchange using a single PFT gas, the assumption of a single well-mixed air zone very likely results in an under prediction of the AER.