Larry A. Tucker

Comparison of the Effects of Walking and Weight Training Programs on Body Image in Middle-Aged Women: An Experimental Study

Purpose. This study was conducted to determine the effect of a resistive training intervention on body image in middle-aged women compared to an exercise walking program. Another purpose was to develop two multivariate models to explain improvement in body image among the lifters and walkers. Design. A pretest-posttest experimental design with random assignment of subjects to two exercise groups was employed. Setting. Subjects trained in their own homes and were tested at the university. Subjects. Participants were 60 women recruited from the local community with an average age of 42.5 ± 4.2 years. Intervention. Subjects were randomly assigned to a resistive training or exercise walking program, both of which were three days per week and 12 weeks in duration. Measures. Body cathexis was assessed using the Body Cathexis Scale; cardiovascular endurance was measured using the one-mile walk test, and muscular strength was assessed using standard weight training procedures. Results. After completion of the exercise interventions, lifters showed greater muscular strength than walkers, and walkers displayed greater cardiorespiratory endurance than lifters, as expected. Lifters also improved significantly more in body image than the walkers. Conclusions. Participation in a three-day-per-week resistive training program seems to improve body image in middle-aged women more than participation in a three-day per week walking program. Further, it appears that hard work and fitness improvements contribute significantly toward positive changes in body image.

The Effects of a Single Bout of Strength Training on Ambulatory Blood Pressure Levels in 24 Mildly Hypertensive Men

Twenty-four mildly hypertensive sedentary men were randomly assigned to one or two control conditions of health education or a treatment of a single bout of strength training. The men were rotated through the conditions until each man had participated in the treatment and both control conditions. Blood pressure was measured every 15 minutes for the 24-hour period following participation in each condition using an ambulatory blood pressure monitoring system. Compared to the control conditions, systolic blood pressure and blood pressure load were reduced for at least 1 hour after exercise, and diastolic blood pressure and blood pressure load were reduced for at least 3 minutes and 1 hour, respectively, after exercise.

Relationship between Perceived Somatotype and Body Cathexis of College Males

The primary purpose of this study was to determine if males grouped according to self-perceived somatotype differ significantly in body concept, while a subordinate purpose was to identify the perceived somatotype response trends of a college male population. The Perceived Somatotype Scale and the Body Cathexis Scale were administered to 88 male undergraduates, and the data were analyzed by multiple regression. The somatotype the males perceived as their own, and the body build perceived as ideal accounted for 27.9% and 4.3% of the variance in body-cathexis scores, respectively. A measure of discrepancy between the perceived somatotype-self and ideal indices accounted for 22.7% of the variance in the criterion. As self-perception of somatotype deviates from mesomorphic and moves toward the ectomorphic and endomorphic poles, especially the latter, self-concept relative to the body tends to decline rapidly. Moreover, males who perceive their physiques differ from their perceived ideals tend to report significantly less body satisfaction than those who perceive no such discrepancy.

Internal Structure, Factor Satisfaction, and Reliability of the Body Cathexis Scale

The primary purpose of this study was to examine the internal structure and dimensionality of the Body Cathexis Scale, while secondary problems were to compare the relative satisfaction of each factor and to determine the test-retest reliability of the instrument. The scale was administered on a pretest-posttest basis to a sample of 83 college males. Using a factor analytic strategy with varimax rotation, four independent factors emerged: (1) Health and Physical Fitness, (2) Face and Over-all Appearance, (3) Subordinate and Independent Body Features, and (4) Physique and Muscular Strength. Analysis of the relative satisfaction reported for each axis indicated significant differences among the factors. The items of the first two factors were rated significantly more favorably than the variables of the second two dimensions. Test-retest reliability coefficient was .87, suggesting that the Body Cathexis Scale is stable over time.

EFFECT OF A WEIGHT-TRAINING PROGRAM ON THE SELF-CONCEPTS OF COLLEGE MALES

This study was conducted to determine the effect of a weight-training program on the self-concepts of 105 college males and whether or not success in the lifting program affected self-concepts. Subjects were randomly selected by a duster-sampling strategy, divided by self-selection into an experimental and a control group, and assessed on the Tennessee Self-concept Scale. The weight-training program required two intense 50-min. total-body workouts per week for 16 wk. Significant differences between groups were found on five of the nine self-concept measures including the Total Positive score; this supported the hypothesis that regular weight-training positively influences self-concept. The experimental group also showed significant improvement from pre- to posttest on eight of the nine self-concept indices, yet control subjects displayed no significant changes on any of the measures. Level of success in the lifting program was not determined to be a significant moderator variable.

The effects of different percentages of dietary fat intake, exercise, and calorie restriction on body composition and body weight in obese females.

Purpose. The goal of this study was to determine the effect of varying the amount of dietary fat, while holding calories at 1,200 kcals/day, on body weight and percent body fat in 35 obese women. Design. A pretest, midtest, posttest experimental design was employed, and subjects were randomly divided into one of four dietary fat groups, with 10%, 20%, 30%, or 40% of caloric intake as dietary fat. Intervention. Subjects consumed 1,200 kcals/day and a specified percentage of total energy as fat, depending on their dietary group. Protein was held constant at 20%. All subjects engaged in a five day/week walking program. Setting. Participants were recruited from the general community using newspaper advertisements. Subjects. Thirty-five obese women 25 to 45 years of age (means=38 ± 4.97) served as subjects. All were at least 20% above ideal weight and 30% to 52% body fat. Measures. Percent body fat, body weight, and anthropomorphic measurements were taken at baseline, six and 12 weeks. Dietary intake was recorded daily by each subject, and exercise walking logs were maintained by each participant. Results. All subjects lost body weight and body fat; however, there were no significant differences in the rate or amount of body weight or percent body fat lost across the four groups during the intervention. Conclusions. It appears that during calorie restriction and exercise for 12 weeks, percent of calories derived from dietary fats does not influence loss of body weight or percent body fat in adult obese women.

Effect of Weight Training on Self-Concept: A Profile of those Influenced Most

Abstract This study was conducted to determine the effect of weight training on the self-concepts of college males. Another purpose was to identify the types of males, relative to measures of extroversion, neuroticism, body cathexis, somatotype, and muscular strength, who experience the most improvement in self-concept during a lifting program. Subjects of the experimental group (n = 113) trained with weights twice each week for 16 weeks, while controls (n = 127) were educated relative to personal health concepts. The results revealed significant posttest differences in global, internal, and external self-concept between the groups, confirming the hypothesis that regular weight training is positively associated with the improvement of self-concept. Pretest body cathexis, self-concept, and neuroticism scores were significant predictors of global self-concept change from the pretest to the posttest, whereas pretest measures of extroversion, somatotype, and muscular strength were not. Changes in neuroticism,...

Effects of Weight Training on the Emotional Well-Being and Body Image of Females: Predictors of Greatest Benefit

Background. This study was conducted to determine the extent to which participation in a weight training intervention was associated with changes in the emotional well-being and body image of females compared to non-weight trainers. An ancillary objective was to study the extent to which psychological, physical, and demographic factors accounted for changes in emotional well-being and body image. Methods. The experimental group consisted of 60 females, and a comparison group was comprised of 92 females. Experimental subjects participated in a 15-week, two-day-per-week weight training intervention, while subjects in the comparison group did not participate in any weight training activities. Subjects were pre- and posttested on the General Well-Being Schedule and the Body Cathexis Scale. Experimental subjects were also tested in muscular strength and three skinfold measurements. Results. With pretest scores controlled, the weight trainers had significantly higher General Well-Being and Body Cathexis posttest scores than the comparison group. Weight trainers also showed significant increases in muscular strength, and significant decreases in skinfold thickness. Four variables predicted 38.8% of the variance of those who improved most in General Well-Being: lower pretest General Well-Being, lower parental income, greater loss of body weight, and lower posttest skinfold. Five variables predicted 61.5% of the variance of those women who improved most in Body Cathexis: lower pretest Body Cathexis, greater body weight at the outset, shorter in height, less involvement in non-weight training exercise, and lower posttest skinfold. Discussion. Cause-and-effect conclusions are not warranted given the use of intact groups, and the long-term effect of weight training on the emotional well-being of women was not discernible given the 15-week length of this study.

Television Viewing and Physical Fitness in Adults

The purpose of this study was to determine the extent to which time spent watching television is associated with cardiovascular fitness among 8,885 adults. Potential confounding effects of age, gender, smoking, length of work week, time reported exercising each week, and obesity were also examined. Subjects who watched TV more than 4 hours per day (frequent viewers) were 0.37 times as likely to be physically fit as those who watched TV less than 1 hour per day (infrequent viewers) with age and gender controlled. Similarly, adults who watched TV 3-4 hours per day (moderately frequent viewers) were 0.45 times as likely to be fit as infrequent watchers. Adjustment for potential confounders, particularly measured body fat and reported exercise duration in combination, weakened the TV viewing/fitness relation moderately. Given the findings of this study and the results of previous research, caution should be exercised regarding excessive television viewing.

Differences in health care costs and utilization among adults with selected lifestyle-related risk factors.

Purpose. This study examined the relationship between lifestyle-related health risks and health care costs and utilization in adults. Design. A 2-year prospective study with no intervention was used to compare health care utilization and costs in employees with different levels of health risks. Setting. Data were collected at a primarily white-collar worksite during 1994 and 1995. Subjects. Subjects included 982 employees and spouses, mean age 32.1 ± 10.1 years. Measures. Employee medical claims obtained from a third-party administrator were analyzed with respect to health care expenses and utilization. Exercise habits, stress, and overall wellness were assessed by self-report and obesity by the body mass index (BMI). Regression, regression with outliers removed, and odds ratios were used to analyze the associations. Results. Employees who were at high risk for overall wellness (2.4 times), stress (1.9 times), and obesity (1.7 times) were more likely to have high health care costs (>