Larry J. Nelson

Distinguishing Features of Emerging Adulthood The Role of Self-Classification as an Adult

Research reveals that most 18- to 25-year-old individuals do not consider themselves to be adults. This time period between adolescence and adulthood has been newly defined as emerging adulthood. The purpose of this study was to (a) attempt to identify perceived adults and (b) explore whether differences in adulthood criteria, achievement of those criteria, identity issues, risk-taking behaviors, and depression are based on perceived adult status. Findings from 232 college students’ responses revealed that there was a small group of perceived adults, and when compared to their emerging-adult peers, they(a) did not differ on the adulthood criteria they used; (b) believed they had achieved more of the adulthood criteria; (c) had a better sense of their overall identity, as well as what type of person they wanted as a romantic partner; (d) were less depressed; and (e) engaged in fewer risk behaviors (e.g., illegal drug use and drunk driving).

The Transaction between Parents’ Perceptions of their Children’s Shyness and their Parenting Styles

In recent years, researchers have examined factors that “determine” parenting beliefs, styles, and behaviours. One potential determinant of parenting is the child him/herself. Child characteristics, such as temperament, have been cited as evocative influences on parenting beliefs and behaviours. The primary purpose of this study was to investigate the longitudinal relations between children’s social wariness/inhibition and parents’ beliefs about how to best socialise their children. Questionnaire data on child temperament and parenting practices were collected from the parents (mothers and fathers) of sixty 2-year-olds; identical data were collected 2 years later. Observations of inhibited behaviour were taken at two years. Results indicated that few differences existed between mothers’ and fathers’ expressed parenting styles at ages 2 and 4 years. Second, parental perceptions of child shyness at age 2 were: (a) stable to age 4; and (b) predicted a lack of encouragement of independence at age 4. Third, parents’ expressed lack of encouragement of independence, although stable from 2 to 4 years, failed to predict child shyness at age 4. The findings support the conjecture that young children’s dispositional characteristics predict subsequent maternal and paternal behaviour.

Overt and Relational Aggression on the Playground: Correspondence Among Different Informants

Abstract Recent research has focused on subtypes of childrens aggressive behavior (e.g., instrumental, bullying, relational). However, little work with preschool children has explored intermethod agreement involving teacher ratings, peer behavior nominations, and playground behavior observations for these three different forms of aggression. This study attempted to fill this gap in the literature by using all three methods to examine aggressive subtypes of playground behavior in preschool as related to SES and gender. Data involving aggressive behavior of 241 4- to 5-year-old children in Head Start and university preschool programs were collected from peers, teachers, and observers. Results indicated that peers, teachers, and observers differentiated between general categories of relational aggression and overt aggression. However, peers did not distinguish between overt instrumental and bullying aggression. Peers viewed relational aggression, but not overt aggression, as being associated with anger and ...

Peer acceptance in early childhood and subtypes of socially withdrawn behaviour in China, Russia, and the United States

To assess whether subtypes of withdrawal could be similarly identified by teachers and linked to peer group adjustment in mainland China, Russia, and the United States, 642 4- to 6-year-old children in these diverse cultural contexts were rated on items reflecting reticent, solitary-passive, solitary-active, and sociable behaviour (cf. Coplan & Rubin, 1998). Linkages of childhood withdrawal to peer group adjustment were also investigated using peer sociometric ratings. Findings, based on multisample confirmatory factor analysis, indicated that separate factors were required to represent the three withdrawn subtypes in each cultural setting. However, US and Russian teachers made finer discriminations between subtypes than did Chinese teachers. Controlling for other withdrawn subtypes, reticent behaviour was uniquely related to lower sociometric ratings in all three cultures. Sociability was associated with higher sociometric ratings in these diverse settings. Findings are interpreted in the light of cultural considerations.

The influence of culture in emerging adulthood: Perspectives of Chinese college students

Emerging adulthood refers to a time period (18–25 years of age) between adolescence and adulthood. Recent research suggests that it may be a cultural construction. More traditional, non-Western cultures may have a shortened period of emerging adulthood, or no emerging adulthood at all, because these cultures tend to place greater emphasis on practices that lead to an earlier transition to adulthood. The purpose of this study was to examine emerging adulthood in the Chinese culture, including (1) the types of criteria Chinese young people deem necessary for becoming an adult, (2) the types of behaviours Chinese emerging adults are engaging in, (3) identity-related issues, and (4) other aspects of Chinese culture that might suggest that emerging adulthood in China may be different than in the United States. Participants in this study were 207 students at Beijing Normal University located in Beijing, China. Results provided evidence to support the notion that emerging adulthood is affected by culture. Findings revealed that the majority of Chinese college students (1) feel they have reached adult status in their early twenties, (2) have culturally specific criteria for adult status, and (3) tend to engage in behaviours and have beliefs and values that appear to differ from emerging adults in Western cultures.

Black hawk down?: Establishing helicopter parenting as a distinct construct from other forms of parental control during emerging adulthood

The purpose of the current study was to establish a measure of helicopter parenting that was distinct from other forms of parental control, and to examine parental and behavioral correlates of helicopter parenting. Participants included 438 undergraduate students from four universities in the United States (M(age) = 19.65, SD = 2.00, range = 18-29; 320 women, 118 men), and at least one of their parents. Analyses revealed that helicopter parenting loaded on a separate factor from both behavioral and psychological control, and that helicopter parenting was positively associated with behavioral and psychological control, but not at levels suggesting complete overlap. Results also revealed that helicopter parenting was positively associated with parental involvement and with other positive aspects of the parent-child relationship; but negatively associated with parental autonomy granting and school engagement. Discussion focuses on the implications of helicopter parenting for healthy development during emerging adulthood.

So Close, Yet So Far Away: The Impact of Varying Marital Horizons on Emerging Adulthood.

This article presents a marital horizon theory of emerging adulthood that posits that young peoples perceptions of marriage are central factors in determining subgroup differences in the length of emerging adulthood as well as the specific behaviors that occur during this period in the family life cycle. The model was tested with a sample of 813 emerging adults who were recruited from six college sites across the country. Results demonstrated that there are significant differences between young people who have relatively close marital horizons (i.e., those who desire marriage in their early 20s) and those who have more distant marital horizons (i.e., those who desire marriage in their mid-20s or later) in the areas of substance use patterns, sexual permissiveness, and family formation values. Results suggest that changes in lifestyle patterns previously assumed to be associated with the transition to marriage may in fact be initiated when young people anticipate marriage in their near future.

Perceptions of the transition to adulthood among Chinese and American emerging adults

This study explored cultural differences in the criteria young people have for becoming an adult. Specifically, the study sought (a) to compare Chinese and American responses concerning whether they believe they have reached adulthood; (b) to examine whether adulthood criteria could fit a common statistical model for both cultures; and (c) after estimating this model, to compare the importance of adulthood criteria for Chinese and Americans. Results indicated that Chinese students considered themselves to be adults more than did American students. Also, Chinese students ascribed greater importance to criteria that reflect obligations toward others than did the Americans. The influence of culture in the transition to adulthood was discussed.

Religiosity and spirituality during the transition to adulthood

Emerging adults (approximately 18 to 25 years of age) experience heightened self-exploration regarding their beliefs and values, including those concerning religiosity and spirituality. The purpose of this article is to review the literature regarding religiosity and spirituality in emerging adulthood. First, we document developmental advances in physical, cognitive, and psychosocial development that support this exploration along with theoretical and empirical work on how religiosity and spirituality develop during this time period. Second, we examine the research on prevalence rates for and correlates of religiosity and spirituality. Third, we examine socializing agents of religiosity and spirituality that document parents’ indirect role relative to other adults, peers, and the media. Next, we examine the role that culture, community, and gender play in the development and socialization of religious and spiritual beliefs and practices. Lastly, future research directions and implications of the findings are discussed.

The role of acculturation in the emerging adulthood of aboriginal college students

Compared to traditional, non-Western cultures, emerging adulthood (18–25 years of age) may look considerably different in cultures that place emphasis on the group (i.e., collectivistic) over the individual (i.e., individualistic). However, within minority cultures, individual members vary on the extent to which they identify with their heritage culture. Thus, the purpose of this study was to explore the role that culture, particularly acculturation to Canadian aboriginal heritage culture, may play in emerging adulthood. Specifically, aboriginal emerging adults who scored above or below the mean of their peers on acculturation to their heritage (aboriginal) culture were compared to their majority European Canadian counterparts in several aspects of emerging adulthood including (a) perceived adult status, (b) perceived criteria for adulthood, (c) achieved criteria for adulthood, (d) personal beliefs about the future, and (e) risk behaviours. Results revealed the significance of examining acculturation in understanding the role of culture in the process of emerging adulthood, particularly among ethnic minority youth. In particular, findings revealed that young aboriginal adults’ level of identification with aboriginal traditions such as the significance of interdependence and maintenance of harmony, the role of children and family, and historical sociocultural events appeared to play a role in many aspects of emerging adulthood.