Larry S. Zweifel

Functions and mechanisms of retrograde neurotrophin signalling

Neuronal connections are established and refined through a series of developmental programs that involve axon and dendrite specification, process growth, target innervation, cell death and synaptogenesis. Many of these developmental events are regulated by target-derived neurotrophins and their receptors, which signal retrogradely over long distances from distal-most axons to neuronal cell bodies. Recent work has established many of the cellular and molecular events that underlie retrograde signalling and the importance of these events for both development and maintenance of proper neural connectivity.

A Neurotrophin Signaling Cascade Coordinates Sympathetic Neuron Development through Differential Control of TrkA Trafficking and Retrograde Signaling

A fundamental question in developmental biology is how a limited number of growth factors and their cognate receptors coordinate the formation of tissues and organs endowed with enormous morphological complexity. We report that the related neurotrophins NGF and NT-3, acting through a common receptor, TrkA, are required for sequential stages of sympathetic axon growth and, thus, innervation of target fields. Yet, while NGF supports TrkA internalization and retrograde signaling from distal axons to cell bodies to promote neuronal survival, NT-3 cannot. Interestingly, final target-derived NGF promotes expression of the p75 neurotrophin receptor, in turn causing a reduction in the sensitivity of axons to intermediate target-derived NT-3. We propose that a hierarchical neurotrophin signaling cascade coordinates sequential stages of sympathetic axon growth, innervation of targets, and survival in a manner dependent on the differential control of TrkA internalization, trafficking, and retrograde axonal signaling.

Disruption of NMDAR-dependent burst firing by dopamine neurons provides selective assessment of phasic dopamine-dependent behavior

Midbrain dopamine (DA) neurons fire in 2 characteristic modes, tonic and phasic, which are thought to modulate distinct aspects of behavior. However, the inability to selectively disrupt these patterns of activity has hampered the precise definition of the function of these modes of signaling. Here, we addressed the role of phasic DA in learning and other DA-dependent behaviors by attenuating DA neuron burst firing and subsequent DA release, without altering tonic neural activity. Disruption of phasic DA was achieved by selective genetic inactivation of NMDA-type, ionotropic glutamate receptors in DA neurons. Disruption of phasic DA neuron activity impaired the acquisition of numerous conditioned behavioral responses, and dramatically attenuated learning about cues that predicted rewarding and aversive events while leaving many other DA-dependent behaviors unaffected.

Genetic identification of a neural circuit that suppresses appetite

Appetite suppression occurs after a meal and in conditions when it is unfavourable to eat, such as during illness or exposure to toxins. A brain region proposed to play a role in appetite suppression is the parabrachial nucleus, a heterogeneous population of neurons surrounding the superior cerebellar peduncle in the brainstem. The parabrachial nucleus is thought to mediate the suppression of appetite induced by the anorectic hormones amylin and cholecystokinin, as well as by lithium chloride and lipopolysaccharide, compounds that mimic the effects of toxic foods and bacterial infections, respectively. Hyperactivity of the parabrachial nucleus is also thought to cause starvation after ablation of orexigenic agouti-related peptide neurons in adult mice. However, the identities of neurons in the parabrachial nucleus that regulate feeding are unknown, as are the functionally relevant downstream projections. Here we identify calcitonin gene-related peptide-expressing neurons in the outer external lateral subdivision of the parabrachial nucleus that project to the laterocapsular division of the central nucleus of the amygdala as forming a functionally important circuit for suppressing appetite. Using genetically encoded anatomical, optogenetic and pharmacogenetic tools, we demonstrate that activation of these neurons projecting to the central nucleus of the amygdala suppresses appetite. In contrast, inhibition of these neurons increases food intake in circumstances when mice do not normally eat and prevents starvation in adult mice whose agouti-related peptide neurons are ablated. Taken together, our data demonstrate that this neural circuit from the parabrachial nucleus to the central nucleus of the amygdala mediates appetite suppression in conditions when it is unfavourable to eat. This neural circuit may provide targets for therapeutic intervention to overcome or promote appetite.

Evidence in Support of Signaling Endosome-Based Retrograde Survival of Sympathetic Neurons

The mechanism by which target-derived Nerve Growth Factor (NGF) signaling is propagated retrogradely, over extremely long distances, to cell bodies to support survival of neurons is unclear. Here we show that survival of sympathetic neurons supported by NGF on distal axons requires the kinase activity of the NGF receptor, TrkA, in both distal axons and cell bodies. In contrast, disruption of TrkA activity exclusively in proximal axonal segments affects neither retrograde NGF-TrkA signaling in cell bodies nor neuronal survival. Ligand-receptor internalization is necessary for survival of neurons supported by NGF on distal axons. Furthermore, antibody neutralization experiments indicate that retrogradely transported NGF, within cell bodies, is critical for neuronal survival but not for growth of distal axons. Taken together, our results indicate that retrogradely transported NGF-TrkA complexes promote sympathetic neuron survival.

Role of NMDA Receptors in Dopamine Neurons for Plasticity and Addictive Behaviors

A single exposure to drugs of abuse produces an NMDA receptor (NMDAR)-dependent long-term potentiation (LTP) of AMPA receptor (AMPAR) currents in DA neurons; however, the importance of LTP for various aspects of drug addiction is unclear. To test the role of NMDAR-dependent plasticity in addictive behavior, we genetically inactivated functional NMDAR signaling exclusively in DA neurons (KO mice). Inactivation of NMDARs results in increased AMPAR-mediated transmission that is indistinguishable from the increases associated with a single cocaine exposure, yet locomotor responses to multiple drugs of abuse were unaltered in the KO mice. The initial phase of locomotor sensitization to cocaine is intact; however, the delayed sensitization that occurs with prolonged cocaine withdrawal did not occur. Conditioned behavioral responses for cocaine-testing environment were also absent in the KO mice. These findings provide evidence for a role of NMDAR signaling in DA neurons for specific behavioral modifications associated with drug seeking behaviors.

The cAMP–Protein Kinase A Signal Transduction Pathway Modulates Ethanol Consumption and Sedative Effects of Ethanol

Ethanol and other drugs of abuse modulate cAMP–PKA signaling within the mesolimbic reward pathway. To understand the role of the cAMP–PKA signal transduction in mediating the effects of ethanol, we have studied ethanol consumption and the sedative effects of ethanol in three lines of genetically modified mice. We report that mice with the targeted disruption of one Gsα allele as well as mice with reduced neuronal PKA activity have decreased alcohol consumption compared with their wild-type littermates. Genetic reduction of cAMP–PKA signaling also makes mice more sensitive to the sedative effects of ethanol, although plasma ethanol concentrations are unaffected. In contrast, mice with increased adenylyl cyclase activity resulting from the transgenic expression of a constitutively active form of Gsα in neurons within the forebrain are less sensitive to the sedative effects of ethanol. Thus, the cAMP–PKA signal transduction pathway is critical in modulating sensitivity to the sedative effects of ethanol as well as influencing alcohol consumption.

Activation of dopamine neurons is critical for aversive conditioning and prevention of generalized anxiety

Generalized anxiety is thought to result, in part, from impairments in contingency awareness during conditioning to cues that predict aversive or fearful outcomes. Dopamine neurons of the ventral midbrain exhibit heterogeneous responses to aversive stimuli that are thought to provide a critical modulatory signal to facilitate orientation to environmental changes and assignment of motivational value to unexpected events. Here we describe a mouse model in which activation of dopamine neurons in response to an aversive stimulus is attenuated by conditional genetic inactivation of functional NMDA receptors on dopamine neurons. We discovered that altering the magnitude of excitatory responses by dopamine neurons in response to an aversive stimulus was associated with impaired conditioning to a cue that predicts an aversive outcome. Impaired conditioning by these mice was associated with the development of a persistent, generalized anxiety-like phenotype. These data are consistent with a role for dopamine in facilitating contingency awareness that is critical for the prevention of generalized anxiety.

Elucidating an Affective Pain Circuit that Creates a Threat Memory

Animals learn to avoid harmful situations by associating a neutral stimulus with a painful one, resulting in a stable threat memory. In mammals, this form of learning requires the amygdala. Although pain is the main driver of aversive learning, the mechanism that transmits pain signals to the amygdala is not well resolved. Here, we show that neurons expressing calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) in the parabrachial nucleus are critical for relaying pain signals to the central nucleus of amygdala and that this pathway may transduce the affective motivational aspects of pain. Genetic silencing of CGRP neurons blocks pain responses and memory formation, whereas their optogenetic stimulation produces defensive responses and a threat memory. The pain-recipient neurons in the central amygdala expressing CGRP receptors are also critical for establishing a threat memory. The identification of the neural circuit conveying affective pain signals may be pertinent for treating pain conditions with psychiatric comorbidities.

Absence of NMDA receptors in dopamine neurons attenuates dopamine release but not conditioned approach during Pavlovian conditioning

During Pavlovian conditioning, phasic dopamine (DA) responses emerge to reward-predictive stimuli as the subject learns to anticipate reward delivery. This observation has led to the hypothesis that phasic dopamine signaling is important for learning. To assess the ability of mice to develop anticipatory behavior and to characterize the contribution of dopamine, we used a food-reinforced Pavlovian conditioning paradigm. As mice learned the cue–reward association, they increased their head entries to the food receptacle in a pattern that was consistent with conditioned anticipatory behavior. D1-receptor knockout (D1R-KO) mice had impaired acquisition, and systemic administration of a D1R antagonist blocked both the acquisition and expression of conditioned approach in wild-type mice. To assess the specific contribution of phasic dopamine transmission, we tested mice lacking NMDA-type glutamate receptors (NMDARs) exclusively in dopamine neurons (NR1-KO mice). Surprisingly, NR1-KO mice learned at the same rate as their littermate controls. To evaluate the contribution of NMDARs to phasic dopamine release in this paradigm, we performed fast-scan cyclic voltammetry in the nucleus accumbens of awake mice. Despite having significantly attenuated phasic dopamine release following reward delivery, KO mice developed cue-evoked dopamine release at the same rate as controls. We conclude that NMDARs in dopamine neurons enhance but are not critical for phasic dopamine release to behaviorally relevant stimuli; furthermore, their contribution to phasic dopamine signaling is not necessary for the development of cue-evoked dopamine or anticipatory activity in a D1R-dependent Pavlovian conditioning paradigm.