Lars Östlund

Structural changes in three mid-boreal Swedish forest landscapes, 1885-1996

Changes in the structure and composition of 123 000 ha of boreal forests in Sweden, were analysed using historical records. These forests had not been commercially logged when the first forest surveys took place in the late 1800s, so the earliest surveys provide unique data on structure of the natural boreal forest. The pre-exploitation forests had many large-diameter living and standing dead trees (Pinus sylvestris L. and Picea abies (L.) Karst.), and were dominated by stands > 200 years old. Commercial exploitation in the late 1800s, subsequent intensive forest management and fire protection have generated a forest landscape dominated by relatively young and dense stands, totally different from the pre-exploitation forests. Since the late 1800s, both the number of large trees and the volume of snags have been reduced by about 90%, and the area of old stands has diminished to < 1%. These fundamental changes have reduced the number of habitats for many red-listed species considerably. We conclude that the essential characteristics of the natural forest landscape have to be re-created in order to restore and maintain natural biodiversity.

Changes in mixed deciduous forests of boreal Sweden 1866-1999 based on interpretation of historical records

Current knowledge of patterns and abundance of deciduous trees in thepre-industrial landscape of boreal Sweden is limited. This is due to a dramatictransformation of the forest landscape during the last 100 years and the lackofrepresentative forest reserves. We used historical records to study change infive mixed deciduous forests between 1866 and 1999. The results show that largechanges occurred due to complex interactions between fire disturbance, firesuppression, logging and silviculture. Before fire suppression, the presence ofdeciduous trees was mainly determined by earlier fire influence. Laterselectivelogging disturbed natural succession and favoured regeneration of deciduoustrees. During the 20th century deciduous trees were removed bygirdling, thinning and herbicide spraying. Much of the mixed deciduous standschanged to coniferous stands between 1906–15 and 1969–70, and thendeciduous trees were totally removed from these stands between late 1960s and1999. Today mixed deciduous forest occurs mainly in young stands and on othersites than previously. Our results also show that large coniferous trees andmulti-aged forest occurred in all sites in the early 1900s. Most sites weredominated by coniferous species and forest dominated by deciduous treesoccurredonly in smaller areas. These results are not consistent with the current viewthat deciduous-dominated forest occupied substantial areas in boreal Swedenbefore fire suppression. Appropriate changes in forest management arediscussed,as is the value of historical data in interpreting changes in forestlandscapes.

Floating Timber in Northern Sweden: The Construction of Floatways and Transformation of Rivers

The development of the export-oriented forest industry played an essential role in the industrialisation of Sweden at the end of the nineteenth century. A very important factor was the available watercourses: these could be used to transport timber from inland forests to the sawmills on the coast. The aim of this study is to analyse the transformation of one river in boreal Sweden, the Vindelalven, during 1820‐1945, caused by the introduction of large scale floating of timber. The most prominent feature of this development was the exploitation of a landscape without any industrial infrastructure. Production volumes and the scale of production within the forest industry increased radically from the mid‐ nineteenth century and transformed the landscape of both the forests and the rivers. The transformation of this natural watercourse, by building different kinds of floatway structures and dramatically changing the flow of water, can be divided into four characteristic periods: i) 1820‐1850, ii) 1850‐1900, iii) 1900‐ 1945, and iv) from 1945 to the end of the log driving era in Vindelalven in 1976. The many different activities and the lengthy time period have resulted in a fundamental transformation of the river and its ecological characteristics, and have therefore left an almost indelible imprint on the river Vindelalven.

A forest of grazing and logging: Deforestation and reforestation history of a boreal landscape in central Sweden

Detailed spatial changes in foreststructure in a central Swedish landscape were examinedusing geographic information system techniques. First,the influence of grazing and burning on forest densityand structure in the 19th century landscape wereanalyzed. Then, the development of the landscapeduring the 20th century, together with the impactof modern forest management methods on foreststructure, were analyzed using historical sources. In1907, over 20% of the 2200 hectare study site wassparsely-wooded (12 m3 ha−1) with old trees.These areas have been reforested with single-storiedmiddle-aged and old pine stands (66 m3 ha−1in 1989) during the 20th century. Firesuppression and changes in land use from subsistence-to-industrialforestry, facilitated Norway spruceregeneration as undergrowth in open Scots pine standsafter logging. This natural regeneration has, to alarge extent, been cut down and replaced by pineafforestation. During the second half of the 20thcentury, the standing timber volume has steadilyincreased, while the mean age of the forest hasdecreased. Todays young dense forests will result inhigher timber values in the coming decades, but theforest has lost a range of ecological niches.

Long-Term Human Impact and Vegetation Changes in a Boreal Forest Reserve: Implications for the Use of Protected Areas as Ecological References

Northern boreal forest reserves that display no signs of modern forest exploitation are often regarded as pristine and are frequently used as ecological reference areas for conservation and restoration. However, the long-term effects of human utilization of such forests are rarely investigated. Therefore, using both paleoecological and archaeological methods, we analyzed temporal and spatial gradients of long-term human impact in a large old-growth forest reserve in the far north of Sweden, comparing vegetational changes during the last millennium at three sites with different land use histories. Large parts of the forest displayed no visible signs of past human land use, and in an area with no recognized history of human land use the vegetation composition appears to have been relatively stable throughout the studied period. However, at two locations effects of previous land use could be distinguished extending at least four centuries back in time. Long-term, but low-intensity, human land use, including cultivation, reindeer herding and tree cutting, has clearly generated an open forest structure with altered species composition in the field layer at settlement sites and in the surrounding forest. Our analysis shows that past human land use created a persistent legacy that is still visible in the present forest ecosystem. This study highlights the necessity for ecologists to incorporate a historical approach to discern underlying factors that have caused vegetational changes, including past human activity. It also indicates that the intensity and spatial distribution of human land use within the landscape matrices of any forests should be assessed before using them as ecological references. The nomenclature of vascular plants follows Krok and Almquist (Svensk flora. Fanerogamer och ormbunksväxter, 2001).

The ancient use ofPinus sylvestris L. (Scots pine) inner bark by Sami people in northern Sweden, related to cultural and ecological factors

A multidisciplinary study of use by Sami people ofPinus sylvestris L. (Scots pine) inner bark was performed in northern Sweden. We combined linguistic, historical and archaeological records with ecological data collected from field studies to investigate important cultural and ecological factors associated with previous use of bark. Our data from bark peeled trees at 313 sites were used to describe patterns in space and time in the land-scape. Sites with bark peeled trees were mainly found in the central and northern part of Lapland (65°00′–68°14′N). Large numbers of barked trees were found in undisturbed forests in national parks and reserves but few were found in forests under commercial management. The dendroecological analysis revealed a continuous use of inner bark from A.D. 1450 to 1890. Large sheets of bark were taken from trees in the spring, prepared and stored as a staple food resource. Inner bark was eaten fresh, dried or roasted. Smaller bark peelings were used for the wrapping of sinews. The cessation of bark use in the 19th century was driven by several factors, but the availability of other products that could replace traditional use of bark was specifically important. The previous common and varied use of bark, the great age of Sami terminology and a possible association with archaeological remains of potential great age indicate that peeled bark was used long before the historic period. Our study also focused on the ongoing loss of culturally-modified trees in forests outside protected areas.

Influence of habitat history on the distribution of Usnea longissima in boreal Scandinavia: a methodological case study

Changes in habitat affect the distribution of species at different spatial and temporal scales. Our aim was to assess the use of several retrospective methods when determining habitat history and its influence on species distribution, using the pendent lichen Usnea longissima Ach. as a model organism. The study was carried out in a Norway spruce dominated forest, located in the middle boreal zone of northern Sweden. Historical sources (including forest inventories and maps) and dendrochronology were combined with field surveys to determine past stand characteristics with a high spatial precision. Also, present stand characteristics were thoroughly surveyed and the relationship between distribution of U. longissima and past and present habitat characteristics were evaluated. Our results showed that, despite the fact that historical logging was unevenly distributed within the study area, similarities in stand structure exist today. Several essential factors affecting the distribution of U. longissima could be related to changes in past stand structure, especially the extent and intensity of previous logging operations and the subsequent stand development during the last c . 150 years. Our results also showed that U. longissima was favoured by a continuous old age structure with canopy openness preserved. The importance of detailed reconstructions of specific habitat components is highlighted when relating species presence to habitat change. It is suggested that the use of retrospective methods presented in this study can be helpful in clarifying possible causes for the complex distribution of certain organisms.

Traces of past sami forest use: An ecological study of culturally modified trees and earlier land use within a boreal forest reserve

The Samis have been present in the Swedish boreal forest for a long time. Their land‐use practices were dominant over vast tracts until the late nineteenth century, but little is known about their impact on forest ecosystems. In this study former land use around an old Sami settlement situated in a forest reserve was analysed through historical sources and field investigations. The area around the Sami settlement (about 2.5 ha) comprised young forest (mean age approximately 140 yrs) with little dead wood present. The forest outside this area was much older and contained more dead wood. Scars dating from 1721 to 1962 were found on 118 culturally modified trees, derived from bark‐peeling practices and blazes for marking trails and borders. The patterns found constitute a characteristic Sami forest landscape, well distinguished from other types of forest use. The results may be used to identify such areas to preserve crucial structures for posterity.

Kinship and Settlements: Sami Residence Patterns in the Fennoscandian Alpine Areas around A.D. 1000

The transition from a hunter-gatherer economy to reindeer pastoralism among the Sami of northern Fennoscandia has been the subject of much debate among scholars concerned with Sami history. This paper adds a new angle to the discussion by focusing on the social structure of a Sami society in the high mountain area of northern Sweden around A.D. 1000. The spatial and temporal patterns of the so-called stállo settlements were analyzed in relation to the seventeenth and eighteenth century demography and community organization of a historically known Sami society. It is proposed that the overall regularity of stállo dwellings, arranged close to each other and in rows, reflects an emphasis on kinship relations and the consolidation of village solidarity. The consolidation of the local community, expressed by the spatial structuring of dwellings, formed a means of addressing internal tensions in times of dramatic and substantial change related to the transition to reindeer pastoralism.

The Use of Plants as Regular Food in Ancient Subarctic Economies: A Case Study Based on Sami Use of Scots Pine Innerbark

This study combines ethnological, historical, and dendroecological data from areas north of the Arctic Circle to analyze cultural aspects of Sami use of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) inner bark as regular food. Bark was peeled in June when trees were at the peak of sapping, leaving a strip of undamaged cambium so the tree survived. As a result, it is possible to date bark-peeling episodes using dendrochronology. The paper argues that the use of Scots pine inner bark reflects Sami religious beliefs, ethical concerns, and concepts of time, all expressed in the process of peeling the bark. A well-developed terminology and a set of specially designed tools reveal the technology involved in bark peeling. Consistent patterns with respect to the direction and size of peeling scars found across the region demonstrate common values and standards. Peeling direction patterns and ceremonial meals relating to bark probably reflect ritual practices connected to the sun deity, Biejvve.