Laura E. Berk

Self-regulation in young children: Is there a role for sociodramatic play?

Abstract This study tested Vygotsky’s assumption that sociodramatic play in early childhood contributes importantly to the development of self-regulation. It also explored whether the link between sociodramatic play and self-regulation differs for impulsive and nonimpulsive preschoolers. In a short-term longitudinal design, 51 middle-income 3- and 4-year-olds were observed in their preschool classrooms. Naturalistic observations of total dramatic play, complex sociodramatic (CSD) play, and solitary dramatic play and of self-regulation in two classroom contexts—clean-up periods and group circle time—were gathered at Time 1, in the fall of the school year. To assess development of self-regulation, clean-up and circle time observations were repeated at Time 2, in late winter and early spring. CSD play predicted development of self-regulation during clean-up periods, whereas solitary dramatic play was negatively correlated with improvement in clean-up performance. The CSD play/improved self-regulation relationship was particularly strong for high-impulsive children, nil for low-impulsive children. Findings are consistent with Vygotsky’s theory and suggest that sociodramatic experiences may be especially advantageous for impulsive children, who are behind their peers in self-regulatory development.

Relationship of caregiver education to child-oriented attitudes, job satisfaction, and behaviors toward children

This study examined relationships between behaviors toward children and a variety of caregiver characteristics—formal education, child-oriented attitudes, satisfaction with child care employment, and commitment to the child care field as a career. Detailed narrative descriptions of the behavior of 37 center-based caregivers responsible for groups of three- to five-year-olds were collected and then coded according to the Prescott, Jones, and Kritchevsky (1967) observational system. Caregivers also answered attitude and job satisfaction questionnaires and provided information about their educational background and child-related preparation. Overall findings indicated that, for the most part, caregiver actions stressed “caretaking” as opposed to “educational” functions. However, variations in behavior were related to caregiver characteristics. In contrast to previous research, higher education, as well as child-related preparation, was associated with several qualities of caregiver behavior—decreases in restriction and increases in encouragement, development of childrens verbal skills, and the use of indirect forms of guidance. Education was positively associated with caregiver commitment to child care as a career. Also, career commitment, child-oriented attitudes, job satisfaction, and stimulating but nondirective behaviors toward children were positively correlated with one another. Results are discussed in relation to social policies concerning the preparation and training of child care professionals.

Development and functional significance of private speech among attention- deficit hyperactivity disordered and normal boys

We compared the development of spontaneous private speech and its relationship to self-controlled behavior in a sample of 6- to 12-year-olds with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and matched normal controls. Thirty-eight boys were observed in their classrooms while engaged in math seatwork. Results revealed that ADHD children were delayed in private speech development in that they engaged in more externalized, self-guiding and less inaudible, internalized speech than normal youngsters. Several findings suggest that the developmental lag was a consequence of a highly unmanageable attentional system that prevents ADHD childrens private speech from gaining efficient mastery over behavior. First, selfguiding speech was associated with greater attentional focus only among the least distractible ADHD boys. Second, the most mature, internalized speech forms were correlated with self-stimulating behavior for ADHD subjects but not for controls. Third, observations of ADHD children both on and off stimulant medication indicated that reducing their symptoms substantially increased the maturity of private speech and its association with motor quiescence and attention to task. Results suggest that the Vygotskian hypothesis of a unidirectional path of influence from private speech to self-controlled behavior should be expanded into a bidirectional model. These findings may also shed light on why treatment programs that train children with attentional deficits in speechto-self have shown limited efficacy.

Private Speech in Two Preschools: Significance of Open-Ended Activities and Make-Believe Play for Verbal Self-Regulation.

Abstract Contextual influences on private speech were examined in two preschools differing in the learning environments they provide for children. Observations of 3- to 5-year-olds were made during free-choice periods in a Montessori and a traditional (play-oriented) program. Consistent with Vygotskys theory that make-believe play serves as a vital context for the development of self-regulation, the incidence of private speech was much higher during open-ended activities, especially fantasy play, that require children to determine the goal of the task, than during closed-ended tasks with predetermined goals. In line with previous research, the more direct involvement, or external regulation, teachers displayed, the lower the rate of childrens private speech. In addition, transitions (as opposed to involvement in activities) were linked to reduced private speech, whereas engagement with peers, in the form of associative play, predicted greater self-directed language. Diminished make-believe play, greater teacher direct involvement, and heightened time spent in transitions largely accounted for the lower incidence of private speech in the Montessori compared with the traditional preschool. Contextual factors also contributed to a drop in private speech at age 5. Implications for fostering childrens verbal self-regulation during early childhood are considered.

A Vygotskian critique of self-instructional training

Self-instructional training, a widely used intervention for treating the learning and behavioral difficulties of impulsive, attention deficit-hyperactivity disordered, and learning disabled children, has repeatedly failed to promote self-control or improve academic performance. In light of this failure, we critically examine four assumptions underlying self-instructional training: (a) children with learning and behavior problems show a lack and/or deficient use of self-regulatory private speech; (b) modeling of self-verbalizations will increase childrens spontaneous production of private speech; (c) speech and action are intrinsically coordinated; and (d) internalization refers to subvocalization of private speech. We argue that self-instructional training interventions need to be thoroughly grounded in Soviet developmental theory of verbal self-regulation and in systematic research on the social origins and development of childrens private speech. A new research agenda is suggested.

Patterns of Extracurricular Participation from High School to College

This investigation examined carry-over effects of high school size on extracurricular participation of 283 senior students at a large, multipurpose university. Results replicated previous findings in that students in smaller high schools showed greater extracurricular participation. However, extent of high school participation was a better predictor of college participation than was high school size. Students from smaller high schools were not more involved college participants. Overall, participation declined from high school to college, especially for females, with greater decline related to smaller school size. High participators participated more in college than low participators but showed greater decline. High participators from the smallest schools declined more than those from larger schools. Results suggest college participation is better explained by personal attributes predisposing students to participate and developmental tasks of late adolescence than it is by size of high school attended.

Development of private speech among preschool children

This study compared theoretical predictions of Piaget (1926) and Vygotsky (1962) about the development of childrens private speech by extending earlier work of Kohlberg et al. (1968) and Berk & Garvin (1984) focusing on elementary school children downward to preschool children. 93 3-to 5-year olds attending 5 nursery school and day care programs were each observed for 12 10-minute segments distributed over the morning session of the school day, totaling 2 hours of observation per child. Berk & Garvins (1984) category system, enabling a direct comparison of Piagets and Vygotskys theories, was used to code the observations. Results supported the Kohlberg et al. developmental sequence and Vygotskys theory about the social origins of private speech. Piagets explanation of private speech as indicator of the childs cognitive inability to take the perspective of others was not supported. In agreement with previous reserch, girls and middle class children showed more mature forms of private speech than boy...

A Review of the Child Development Associate Credential

The origins, development, and evaluations of the Child Development Associate Credential program are reviewed to provide the framework of its assumptions and implications for current practice. Several concerns are raised about the potential biases and narrowness inherent in the system. Evaluation efforts to date have been inadequate in addressing issues of reliability and validity in the system.

High School Size and Extracurricular Participation A Study of a Small College Environment

This investigation examined carry-over effects of high school size on the extracurricular participation of 142 students attending a small liberal arts college. Procedures used in previous research to examine extracurricular activities of students at a large university were replicated so that the findings of both investigations could be compared. In agreement with earlier findings, students in smaller high schools showed greater high school extracurricular participation, but they were not more involved college participants. Overall, participation declined from high school to college, but this decline was not as great as in the large university study. Prior extracurricular history showed no relationship to absolute amount of involvement in the small college, and students who were low participators in high school actually gained in participation from high school to college. Females were more involved participants in five different high school activities, but they lost their extracurricular advantage in college, while males showed greater college participation in two highly visible, talentrelated activities. Results suggest that a special strength of the small college environment is the availability of extracurricular learning opportunities for previously inactive students. College extracurricular involvement among women students needs encouragement, even in small university settings where general environmental press to participate is high.