Laurent Ferron

The Increased Trafficking of the Calcium Channel Subunit α2δ-1 to Presynaptic Terminals in Neuropathic Pain Is Inhibited by the α2δ Ligand Pregabalin

Neuropathic pain results from damage to the peripheral sensory nervous system, which may have a number of causes. The calcium channel subunit α2δ-1 is upregulated in dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons in several animal models of neuropathic pain, and this is causally related to the onset of allodynia, in which a non-noxious stimulus becomes painful. The therapeutic drugs gabapentin and pregabalin (PGB), which are both α2δ ligands, have antiallodynic effects, but their mechanism of action has remained elusive. To investigate this, we used an in vivo rat model of neuropathy, unilateral lumbar spinal nerve ligation (SNL), to characterize the distribution of α2δ-1 in DRG neurons, both at the light- and electron-microscopic level. We found that, on the side of the ligation, α2δ-1 was increased in the endoplasmic reticulum of DRG somata, in intracellular vesicular structures within their axons, and in the plasma membrane of their presynaptic terminals in superficial layers of the dorsal horn. Chronic PGB treatment of SNL animals, at a dose that alleviated allodynia, markedly reduced the elevation of α2δ-1 in the spinal cord and ascending axon tracts. In contrast, it had no effect on the upregulation of α2δ-1 mRNA and protein in DRGs. In vitro, PGB reduced plasma membrane expression of α2δ-1 without affecting endocytosis. We conclude that the antiallodynic effect of PGB in vivo is associated with impaired anterograde trafficking of α2δ-1, resulting in its decrease in presynaptic terminals, which would reduce neurotransmitter release and spinal sensitization, an important factor in the maintenance of neuropathic pain.

Angiotensin II Signaling Pathways Mediate Expression of Cardiac T-Type Calcium Channels

Abstract— Recent studies indicate that cardiac T-type Ca2+ current (ICaT) reappears in hypertrophied ventricular cells. The aim of this study was to investigate the role of angiotensin II (Ang II), a major inducer of cardiac hypertrophy, in the reexpression of T-type channel in left ventricular hypertrophied myocytes. We induced cardiac hypertrophy in rats by abdominal aorta stenosis for 12 weeks and thereafter animals were treated for 2 weeks with losartan (12 mg/kg per day), an antagonist of type 1 Ang II receptors (AT1). In hypertrophied myocytes, we showed that the reexpressed ICaT is generated by the CaV3.1 and CaV3.2 subunits. After losartan treatment, ICaT density decreased from 0.40±0.05 pA/pF (n=26) to 0.20±0.03 pA/pF (n=27, P <0.01), affecting CaV3.1- and CaV3.2-related currents. The amount of CaV3.1 mRNA increased during hypertrophy and retrieved its nonhypertrophic level after losartan treatment, whereas the amount of CaV3.2 mRNA was unaffected by stenosis. In cultured newborn ventricular cells, chronic Ang II application (0.1 &mgr;mol/L) also increased ICaT density and CaV3.1 mRNA amount. UO126, a mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase-1/2 (MEK1/2) inhibitor, reduced Ang II–increased ICaT density and CaV3.1 mRNA amount. Bosentan, an endothelin (ET) receptor antagonist, reduced Ang II–increased ICaT density without affecting the amount of CaV3.1 mRNA. Finally, cotreatment with bosentan and UO126 abolished the Ang II–increased ICaT density. Our results show that AT1-activated MEK pathway and autocrine ET-activated independent MEK pathway upregulate T-type channel expression. Ang II–increased of ICaT density observed in hypertrophied myocytes may play a role in the pathogenesis of Ca2+ overload and arrhythmias seen in cardiac pathology.

β-Subunits Promote the Expression of CaV2.2 Channels by Reducing Their Proteasomal Degradation

The β-subunits of voltage-gated calcium channels regulate their functional expression and properties. Two mechanisms have been proposed for this, an effect on gating and an enhancement of expression. With respect to the effect on expression, β-subunits have been suggested to enhance trafficking by masking an unidentified endoplasmic reticulum (ER) retention signal. Here we have investigated whether, and how, β-subunits affect the level of CaV2.2 channels within somata and neurites of cultured sympathetic neurons. We have used YFP-CaV2.2 containing a mutation (W391A), that prevents binding of β-subunits to its I-II linker and found that expression of this channel was much reduced compared with WT CFP-CaV2.2 when both were expressed in the same neuron. This effect was particularly evident in neurites and growth cones. The difference between the levels of YFP-CaV2.2(W391A) and CFP-CaV2.2(WT) was lost in the absence of co-expressed β-subunits. Furthermore, the relative reduction of expression of CaV2.2(W391A) compared with the WT channel was reversed by exposure to two proteasome inhibitors, MG132 and lactacystin, particularly in the somata. In further experiments in tsA-201 cells, we found that proteasome inhibition did not augment the cell surface CaV2.2(W391A) level but resulted in the observation of increased ubiquitination, particularly of mutant channels. In contrast, we found no evidence for selective retention of CaV2.2(W391A) in the ER, in either the soma or growth cones. In conclusion, there is a marked effect of β-subunits on CaV2.2 expression, particularly in neurites, but our results point to protection from proteasomal degradation rather than masking of an ER retention signal.

Fragile X mental retardation protein controls synaptic vesicle exocytosis by modulating N-type calcium channel density

Fragile X syndrome (FXS), the most common heritable form of mental retardation, is characterized by synaptic dysfunction. Synaptic transmission depends critically on presynaptic calcium entry via voltage-gated calcium (CaV) channels. Here we show that the functional expression of neuronal N-type CaV channels (CaV2.2) is regulated by fragile X mental retardation protein (FMRP). We find that FMRP knockdown in dorsal root ganglion neurons increases CaV channel density in somata and in presynaptic terminals. We then show that FMRP controls CaV2.2 surface expression by targeting the channels to the proteasome for degradation. The interaction between FMRP and CaV2.2 occurs between the carboxy-terminal domain of FMRP and domains of CaV2.2 known to interact with the neurotransmitter release machinery. Finally, we show that FMRP controls synaptic exocytosis via CaV2.2 channels. Our data indicate that FMRP is a potent regulator of presynaptic activity, and its loss is likely to contribute to synaptic dysfunction in FXS.

α2δ-1 Gene Deletion Affects Somatosensory Neuron Function and Delays Mechanical Hypersensitivity in Response to Peripheral Nerve Damage

The α2δ-1 subunit of voltage-gated calcium channels is upregulated after sensory nerve injury and is also the therapeutic target of gabapentinoid drugs. It is therefore likely to play a key role in the development of neuropathic pain. In this study, we have examined mice in which α2δ-1 gene expression is disrupted, to determine whether α2δ-1 is involved in various modalities of nociception, and for the development of behavioral hypersensitivity after partial sciatic nerve ligation (PSNL). We find that naive α2δ-1−/− mice show a marked behavioral deficit in mechanical and cold sensitivity, but no change in thermal nociception threshold. The lower mechanical sensitivity is mirrored by a reduced in vivo electrophysiological response of dorsal horn wide dynamic range neurons. The CaV2.2 level is reduced in brain and spinal cord synaptosomes from α2δ-1−/− mice, and α2δ-1−/− DRG neurons exhibit lower calcium channel current density. Furthermore, a significantly smaller number of DRG neurons respond to the TRPM8 agonist menthol. After PSNL, α2δ-1−/− mice show delayed mechanical hypersensitivity, which only develops at 11 d after surgery, whereas in wild-type littermates it is maximal at the earliest time point measured (3 d). There is no compensatory upregulation of α2δ-2 or α2δ-3 after PSNL in α2δ-1−/− mice, and other transcripts, including neuropeptide Y and activating transcription factor-3, are upregulated normally. Furthermore, the ability of pregabalin to alleviate mechanical hypersensitivity is lost in PSNL α2δ-1−/− mice. Thus, α2δ-1 is essential for rapid development of mechanical hypersensitivity in a nerve injury model of neuropathic pain.

Genetic disruption of voltage-gated calcium channels in psychiatric and neurological disorders.

Highlights • Voltage-gated calcium channel classification—genes and proteins.• Genetic analysis of neuropsychiatric syndromes.• Calcium channel genes identified from GWA studies of psychiatric disorders.• Rare mutations in calcium channel genes in psychiatric disorders.• Pathophysiological sequelae of CACNA1C mutations and polymorphisms.• Monogenic disorders resulting from harmful mutations in other voltage-gated calcium channel genes.• Changes in calcium channel gene expression in disease.• Involvement of voltage-gated calcium channels in early brain development.

Functional exofacially tagged N-type calcium channels elucidate the interaction with auxiliary α2δ-1 subunits

Significance The auxiliary α2δ-1 subunits of voltage-gated calcium (CaV) channels are important therapeutic targets, representing the receptor for gabapentinoid drugs in neuropathic pain therapy. It is therefore important to understand their function. Because α2δ subunits augment calcium currents, it is believed that they increase cell-surface expression of these channels. Here, using exofacially tagged CaV2.2 constructs, we now show this to be the case. However, recent proteomic analysis found that α2δ subunits are associated only loosely and nonquantitatively with CaV2 channels, challenging their role as calcium channel subunits. In contrast, we find that CaV2.2 and α2δ-1 are intimately and completely associated at the plasma membrane and that this is not disrupted by the α2δ-1 ligand gabapentin, which reduces cell-surface expression of both CaV2.2 and α2δ-1. CaV1 and CaV2 voltage-gated calcium channels are associated with β and α2δ accessory subunits. However, examination of cell surface-associated CaV2 channels has been hampered by the lack of antibodies to cell surface-accessible epitopes and of functional exofacially tagged CaV2 channels. Here we report the development of fully functional CaV2.2 constructs containing inserted surface-accessible exofacial tags, which allow visualization of only those channels at the plasma membrane, in both a neuronal cell line and neurons. We first examined the effect of the auxiliary subunits. Although α2δ subunits copurify with CaV2 channels, it has recently been suggested that this interaction is easily disrupted and nonquantitative. We have now tested whether α2δ subunits are associated with these channels at the cell surface. We found that, whereas α2δ-1 is readily observed at the plasma membrane when expressed alone, it appears absent when coexpressed with CaV2.2/β1b, despite our finding that α2δ-1 increases plasma-membrane CaV2.2 expression. However, this was due to occlusion of the antigenic epitope by association with CaV2.2, as revealed by antigen retrieval; thus, our data provide evidence for a tight interaction between α2δ-1 and the α1 subunit at the plasma membrane. We further show that, although CaV2.2 cell-surface expression is reduced by gabapentin in the presence of wild-type α2δ-1 (but not a gabapentin-insensitive α2δ-1 mutant), the interaction between CaV2.2 and α2δ-1 is not disrupted by gabapentin. Altogether, these results demonstrate that CaV2.2 and α2δ-1 are intimately associated at the plasma membrane and allow us to infer a region of interaction.

T-type Ca2+ signalling regulates aldosterone-induced CREB activation and cell death through PP2A activation in neonatal cardiomyocytes

Aims We have investigated Ca2+ signalling generated by aldosterone-induced T-type current (ICaT), the effects of ICaT in neonatal cardiomyocytes, and a putative role for ICaT in cardiomyocytes during cardiac pathology induced by stenosis in an adult rat. Methods and results Neonatal rat cardiomyocytes treated with aldosterone showed an increase in ICaT density, principally due to the upregulation of the T-type channel Cav3.1 (by 80%). Aldosterone activated cAMP-response element-binding protein (CREB), and this activation was enhanced by blocking ICaT or by inhibiting protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) activity. Aldosterone induced PP2A activity, an induction that was prevented upon ICaT blockade. ICaT exerted a negative feedback regulation on the transcription of the Cav3.1 gene, and the activation of PP2A by ICaT led to increased levels of the pro-apoptotic markers caspase 9 and Bcl-xS and decreased levels of the anti-apoptotic marker Bcl-2. These findings were corroborated by flow cytometry analysis for apoptosis and necrosis. Similarly, in a rat model of cardiac disease, ICaT re-emergence was associated with a decrease in CREB activation and was correlated with increases in caspase 9 and Bcl-xS and a decrease in Bcl-2 levels. Conclusion Our findings establish PP2A/CREB as targets of ICaT-generated Ca2+ signalling and identify an important role for ICaT in cardiomyocyte cell death.

The Stargazin-Related Protein {gamma}7 Interacts with the mRNA-Binding Protein Heterogeneous Nuclear Ribonucleoprotein A2 and Regulates the Stability of Specific mRNAs, Including CaV2.2

The role(s) of the novel stargazin-like γ-subunit proteins remain controversial. We have shown previously that the neuron-specific γ7 suppresses the expression of certain calcium channels, particularly CaV2.2, and is therefore unlikely to operate as a calcium channel subunit. We now show that the effect of γ7 on CaV2.2 expression is via an increase in the degradation rate of CaV2.2 mRNA and hence a reduction of CaV2.2 protein level. Furthermore, exogenous expression of γ7 in PC12 cells also decreased the endogenous CaV2.2 mRNA level. Conversely, knockdown of endogenous γ7 with short-hairpin RNAs produced a reciprocal enhancement of CaV2.2 mRNA stability and an increase in endogenous calcium currents in PC12 cells. Moreover, both endogenous and expressed γ7 are present on intracellular membranes, rather than the plasma membrane. The cytoplasmic C terminus of γ7 is essential for all its effects, and we show that γ7 binds directly via its C terminus to a heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein (hnRNP A2), which also binds to a motif in CaV2.2 mRNA, and is associated with native CaV2.2 mRNA in PC12 cells. The expression of hnRNP A2 enhances CaV2.2 I Ba, and this enhancement is prevented by a concentration of γ7 that alone has no effect on I Ba. The effect of γ7 is selective for certain mRNAs because it had no effect on α2δ-2 mRNA stability, but it decreased the mRNA stability for the potassium-chloride cotransporter, KCC1, which contains a similar hnRNP A2 binding motif to that in CaV2.2 mRNA. Our results indicate that γ7 plays a role in stabilizing CaV2.2 mRNA.

Fragile X mental retardation protein controls ion channel expression and activity

Fragile X‐associated disorders are a family of genetic conditions resulting from the partial or complete loss of fragile X mental retardation protein (FMRP). Among these disorders is fragile X syndrome, the most common cause of inherited intellectual disability and autism. FMRP is an RNA‐binding protein involved in the control of local translation, which has pleiotropic effects, in particular on synaptic function. Analysis of the brain FMRP transcriptome has revealed hundreds of potential mRNA targets encoding postsynaptic and presynaptic proteins, including a number of ion channels. FMRP has been confirmed to bind voltage‐gated potassium channels (Kv3.1 and Kv4.2) mRNAs and regulates their expression in somatodendritic compartments of neurons. Recent studies have uncovered a number of additional roles for FMRP besides RNA regulation. FMRP was shown to directly interact with, and modulate, a number of ion channel complexes. The sodium‐activated potassium (Slack) channel was the first ion channel shown to directly interact with FMRP; this interaction alters the single‐channel properties of the Slack channel. FMRP was also shown to interact with the auxiliary β4 subunit of the calcium‐activated potassium (BK) channel; this interaction increases calcium‐dependent activation of the BK channel. More recently, FMRP was shown to directly interact with the voltage‐gated calcium channel, Cav2.2, and reduce its trafficking to the plasma membrane. Studies performed on animal models of fragile X syndrome have revealed links between modifications of ion channel activity and changes in neuronal excitability, suggesting that these modifications could contribute to the phenotypes observed in patients with fragile X‐associated disorders.