Lawrence G. Rudski

Recommendations for cardiac chamber quantification by echocardiography in adults: an update from the American Society of Echocardiography and the European Association of Cardiovascular Imaging.

The rapid technological developments of the past decade and the changes in echocardiographic practice brought about by these developments have resulted in the need for updated recommendations to the previously published guidelines for cardiac chamber quantification, which was the goal of the joint writing group assembled by the American Society of Echocardiography and the European Association of Cardiovascular Imaging. This document provides updated normal values for all four cardiac chambers, including three-dimensional echocardiography and myocardial deformation, when possible, on the basis of considerably larger numbers of normal subjects, compiled from multiple databases. In addition, this document attempts to eliminate several minor discrepancies that existed between previously published guidelines.

Guidelines for the Echocardiographic Assessment of the Right Heart in Adults: A Report from the American Society of Echocardiography

on Statement: Society of Echocardiography is accredited by the Accreditation Council for edical Education to provide continuing medical education for physicians. n Society of Echocardiography designates this educational activity for of 1.0 AMA PRA Category 1 Credits . Physicians should only claim credit te with the extent of their participation in the activity. CCI recognize ASE’s certificates and have agreed to honor the credit hours registry requirements for sonographers. Society of Echocardiography is committed to ensuring that its educational ll sponsored educational programs are not influenced by the special interests ation or individual, and its mandate is to retain only those authors whose fists can be effectively resolved to maintain the goals andeducational integrity y. While a monetary or professional affiliation with a corporation does not fluence an author’s presentation, the Essential Areas and policies of the ire that any relationships that could possibly conflict with the educational activity be resolved prior to publication and disclosed to the audience. f faculty and commercial support relationships, if any, have been indicated. ience: is designed for all cardiovascular physicians and cardiac sonographers with erest and knowledge base in the field of echocardiography; in addition, reschers, clinicians, intensivists, and other medical professionals with a spein cardiac ultrasound will find this activity beneficial.

Effect of chronic infusion of Epoprostenol on echocardiographic right ventricular myocardial performance index and its relation to clinical outcome in patients with primary pulmonary hypertension

claudication: factors determining outcome. BMJ 1978;1:1377–1379. 8. Howell MA, Colgan MP, Seeger RW, Ramsey DE, Sumner DS. Relationship of severity of lower limb peripheral vascular disease to mortality and morbidity: a six-year follow-up study. J Vasc Surg 1989;9:691–697. 9. Newman AB, Tyrrell KS, Kuller LH. Mortality over four years in SHEP participants with a low ankle-arm index. J Am Geriatr Soc 1997;45:1472–1478. 10. Newman AB, Siscovick DS, Manolio TA, Polak J, Fried LP, Borhani NO, Wolfson SK. Ankle-arm index as a marker of atherosclerosis in the Cardiovascular Health Study. Circulation 1993;88:837–845. 11. Leng GC, Fowkes FGR, Lee AJ, Dunbar J, Housley E, Ruckley CV. Use of ankle brachial pressure index to predict cardiovascular events and death: a cohort study. BMJ 1996;313:1440–1444. 12. Rutherford RB, Baker JD, Ernst C, Johnston KW, Porter JM, Ahn S, Jones DN. Recommended standards for reports dealing with lower extremity ischemia: revised version. J Vasc Surg 1997;26:517–538. 13. European Working Group on Critical Leg Ischaemia. Second European consensus document on chronic critical leg ischemia. Circulation 1991;84(suppl IV):IV-1–IV-26. 14. Vaudo G, Schillaci G, Evangelista F, Pasqualini L, Verdecchia P, Mannarino E. Arterial wall thickening at different sites and its association with left ventricular hypertrophy in newly diagnosed essential hypertension. Am J Hypertens 2000;13:324–331. 15. Department of Health and Human Services. The International Classification of Diseases, 9th Revision, Clinical modification: ICD-9-CM, 3rd Edition; Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1989. 16. Kaplan ER, Meier P. Nonparametric estimation from incomplete observations. J Am Stat Assoc 1958;53:457–481. 17. Cox DR. Regression models and life-tables. J Roy Stat Soc B 1972;34:187–220. 18. Collet D. Modeling Survival Data in Medical Research. London, UK: Chapman and Hall, 1994;72–85. 19. Barzilay JI, Kronmal NA, Bittner V, Eaker E, Evans C, Foster ED. Coronary artery disease in diabetic patients with lower-extremities arterial disease: disease characteristics and survival. A report from the Coronary Artery Surgery Study (CASS) registry. Diabetes Care 1997;20:1381–1387.

Echocardiographic Evaluation of the Right Ventricle: a 2014 Perspective

The ability to properly evaluate the right ventricular size and function can have important consequences for clinical management and prognosis. Echocardiography is and will remain the leading method of right ventricle (RV) assessment due to its ease of use and wealth of diagnostic information provided. Understanding the various strengths and limitations of the diverse echocardiographic methods of RV assessment can allow a systematic approach to resolve situations where one’s quantitative parameters are not necessarily concordant. Quantification of RV volume can be done by two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) echocardiography. Measurements of RV systolic function include fractional area change (FAC), right-sided index of myocardial performance (RIMP), RV ejection fraction (RVEF), tricuspid annular plane excursion by M-Mode (TAPSE), tricuspid annular systolic longitudinal velocity by tissue Doppler (S’), and regional strain and strain rate. RVEF can also be assessed volumetrically by 3D echocardiography. This article will review the current methods used in contemporary echocardiography laboratories, with an emphasis on a guideline-based approach as well as emerging techniques.

Incidence and Significance of Pericardial Effusion in Patients With Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension

BACKGROUND The incidence of pericardial effusion (PEF) during long-term follow-up among patients with pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) is unknown. We aimed to determine the incidence and prognostic significance of developing a new PEF among PAH patients. METHODS Records of consecutive patients diagnosed with PAH between January 1990 and May 2010 were reviewed. Patients had systematically undergone right heart catheterization, transthoracic echocardiography, and coronary angiography during their initial assessment as well as routine echocardiograms during follow-up. Effusions were graded as small (echo-free space in diastole <10 mm), moderate (10-20 mm), or large (≥ 20 mm). RESULTS The entire cohort consisted of 154 patients. The prevalence of identified PEF during initial assessment was 28.6%. The incidence of PEF among patients with no effusions who had additional echocardiographic studies during follow-up (n = 102) was 44.1%. Patients who developed PEF during follow-up had no differences with respect to baseline characteristics, associated aetiologies, hemodynamic parameters, and extent of coronary disease. Among these 102 patients, survival estimates were 94.9%, 75.0%, and 62.4% at 1, 3, and 5 years, respectively. Development of a PEF that was at least moderate-sized at its first appearance was a predictor of mortality in univariate (hazard ratio, 6.85; 95% confidence interval, 2.60-18.10) as well as multivariate analysis (hazard ratio, 3.95; 95% confidence interval, 1.26-12.40). CONCLUSIONS PEF develops frequently in PAH patients. In patients with no PEF at baseline, the appearance of a new moderate-size or larger PEF is associated with increased mortality, whereas no significantly increased mortality was observed when a small PEF develops.

Incremental Value of the Preoperative Echocardiogram to Predict Mortality and Major Morbidity in Coronary Artery Bypass Surgery

Background— Although echocardiography is commonly performed before coronary artery bypass surgery, there has yet to be a study examining the incremental prognostic value of a complete echocardiogram. Methods and Results— Patients undergoing isolated coronary artery bypass surgery at 2 hospitals were divided into derivation and validation cohorts. A panel of quantitative echocardiographic parameters was measured. Clinical variables were extracted from the Society of Thoracic Surgeons database. The primary outcome was in-hospital mortality or major morbidity, and the secondary outcome was long-term all-cause mortality. The derivation cohort consisted of 667 patients with a mean age of 67.2±11.1 years and 22.8% females. The following echocardiographic parameters were found to be optimal predictors of mortality or major morbidity: severe diastolic dysfunction, as evidenced by restrictive filling (odds ratio, 2.96; 95% confidence interval, 1.59-5.49), right ventricular dysfunction, as evidenced by fractional area change <35% (odds ratio, 3.03; 95% confidence interval, 1.28-7.20), or myocardial performance index >0.40 (odds ratio, 1.89; 95% confidence interval, 1.13-3.15). These results were confirmed in the validation cohort of 187 patients. When added to the Society of Thoracic Surgeons risk score, the echocardiographic parameters resulted in a net improvement in model discrimination and reclassification with a change in c-statistic from 0.68 to 0.73 and an integrated discrimination improvement of 5.9% (95% confidence interval, 2.8%-8.9%). In the Cox proportional hazards model, right ventricular dysfunction and pulmonary hypertension were independently predictive of mortality over 3.2 years of follow-up. Conclusions— Preoperative echocardiography, in particular right ventricular dysfunction and restrictive left ventricular filling, provides incremental prognostic value in identifying patients at higher risk of mortality or major morbidity after coronary artery bypass surgery.

2010 Canadian Cardiovascular Society/Canadian Society of Echocardiography Guidelines for Training and Maintenance of Competency in Adult Echocardiography

Guidelines for the provision of echocardiography in Canada were jointly developed and published by the Canadian Cardiovascular Society and the Canadian Society of Echocardiography in 2005. Since their publication, recognition of the importance of echocardiography to patient care has increased, along with the use of focused, point-of-care echocardiography by physicians of diverse clinical backgrounds and variable training. New guidelines for physician training and maintenance of competence in adult echocardiography were required to ensure that physicians providing either focused, point-of-care echocardiography or comprehensive echocardiography are appropriately trained and proficient in their use of echocardiography. In addition, revision of the guidelines was required to address technological advances and the desire to standardize echocardiography training across the country to facilitate the national recognition of a physicians expertise in echocardiography. This paper summarizes the new Guidelines for Physician Training and Maintenance of Competency in Adult Echocardiography, which are considerably more comprehensive than earlier guidelines and address many important issues not previously covered. These guidelines provide a blueprint for physician training despite different clinical backgrounds and help standardize physician training and training programs across the country. Adherence to the guidelines will ensure that physicians providing echocardiography have acquired sufficient expertise required for their specific practice. The document will also provide a framework for other national societies to standardize their training programs in echocardiography and will provide a benchmark by which competency in adult echocardiography may be measured.

Leaflet Area as a Determinant of Tricuspid Regurgitation Severity in Patients with Pulmonary Hypertension

Background—Tricuspid regurgitation (TR) is a risk factor for mortality in pulmonary hypertension (PH). TR severity varies among patients with comparable degrees of PH and right ventricular remodeling. The contribution of leaflet adaptation to the pathophysiology of TR has yet to be examined. We hypothesized that tricuspid leaflet area (TLA) is increased in PH, and that the adequacy of this increase relative to right ventricular remodeling determines TR severity. Methods and Results—A prospective cohort of 255 patients with PH from pre and postcapillary pathogeneses was assembled from 2 centers. Patients underwent a 3-dimensional echocardiogram focused on the tricuspid apparatus. TLA was measured with the Omni 4D software package. Compared with normal controls, patients with PH had a 2-fold increase in right ventricular volumes, 62% increase in annular area, and 49% increase in TLA. Those with severe TR demonstrated inadequate increase in TLA relative to the closure area, such that the ratio of TLA:closure area <1.78 was highly predictive of severe TR (odds ratio, 68.7; 95% confidence interval, 16.2–292.7). The median vena contracta width was 8.5 mm in the group with small TLA and large closure area as opposed to 4.8 mm in the group with large TLA and large closure area. Conclusions—TLA plays a significant role in determining which patients with PH develop severe functional TR. The ratio of TLA:closure area, reflecting the balance between leaflet adaptation versus annular dilation and tethering forces, is an indicator of TR severity that may identify which patients stand to benefit from leaflet augmentation during tricuspid valve repair.

Prevalence and impact of coronary artery disease in patients with pulmonary arterial hypertension.

The occurrence and impact of coronary artery disease (CAD) among patients with pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) are unknown. We aimed to determine the prevalence, clinical correlates, and effect of CAD in patients with PAH. We reviewed the medical records of consecutive patients diagnosed with PAH at a university-based referral center for pulmonary vascular disease from January 1990 to May 2010. The patients systematically underwent right heart catheterization and coronary angiography as a part of their evaluation. The patients with PAH with CAD (defined as ≥50% stenosis in ≥1 major epicardial coronary artery) were compared to patients without CAD. Among the 162 patients with PAH, the prevalence of CAD was 28.4%. The presence of CAD was associated with older age (66.6 ± 11.5 vs 49.2 ± 14.0 years, p <0.001), systemic hypertension, and dyslipidemia. The patients with PAH and CAD had a lower mean pulmonary arterial pressure (44.6 ± 11.1 vs 49.2 ± 14.0 mm Hg; p = 0.02) than patients without CAD. During a median follow-up of 36 months, 73 patients died. The presence of CAD was a predictor of all-cause mortality on univariate analysis (hazard ratio 1.97, 95% confidence interval 1.21 to 3.20) but not on multivariate analysis, which identified older age (hazard ratio 1.03, 95% confidence interval 1.01 to 1.05) and right atrial pressure (hazard ratio 1.08, 95% confidence interval 1.03 to 1.14) as the only independent predictors. In conclusion, our study has demonstrated that CAD is common among patients with PAH. CAD prevalence increases with age, dyslipidemia, and hypertension, but we did not detect an independent prognostic effect of CAD on mortality.

Timing of bypass surgery in stable patients after acute myocardial infarction.

OBJECTIVES To determine the optimal timing for bypass surgery in stable patients after acute myocardial infarction (MI). BACKGROUND Coronary artery bypass graft surgery (CABG) is a proven treatment for coronary artery disease. Because of the hypothesized risk of hemorrhagic transformation, it had become common practice to wait four to six weeks after MI. Recently, improvements in surgical and perioperative management, as well as an increase in pre-CABG in-hospital waiting times and excess burden on health care resources, have pushed surgeons to operate earlier. The optimal timing for a stable patient to undergo CABG after MI is unclear, because there have been no randomized trials to answer this question. METHODS The published literature comparing early versus late surgical revascularization procedures in stable post-MI patients was reviewed. RESULTS No randomized, prospective trials were found; however, several retrospective studies were identified. Most series examining Q wave MIs showed that mortality is higher in the early stages post-MI and progressively decreases with time post-MI. When studies examined non-Q wave MIs separately, there appeared to be less of a mortality difference between early and late surgical revascularization. There was a large disparity between the definitions of early surgery post-MI among the studies, some as early as 6 h and others up to eight days. Factors that increased mortality include abnormal left ventricular function and urgency of surgery, and some studies found risk models helpful to define increased risk after infarction. The possible increased risk of early surgery may be balanced against the potential for improved remodelling, improved quality of life and decreased hospital stay costs. CONCLUSIONS There is a need for a randomized, prospective trial examining the optimal timing for CABG in stable post-MI patients.