Lawrence R. Brawley

Promoting physical activity for older adults: The challenges for changing behavior

This article addresses the formidable topic of promoting physical activity among older adults. The primary focus is on older adults who are at risk for or who have evidence of functional limitations or physical disabilities that often accompany chronic disease; where relevant, findings about healthy older adults are also discussed. All of these individuals experience barriers for physical activity that range from cultural expectations to complex symptoms that accompany the disablement process. Conducting physical activity programs in diverse settings and utilizing multiple channels of communication help to alleviate some of these barriers. A major emphasis of the article concerns behavior change strategies necessary in interventions for at-risk older adults with diverse needs and individual differences. Based on recent investigations, several challenges for research are proposed. It is suggested that further attention should be directed toward individualized tailoring of programs that recognize unique barriers in older adults such as intermittent illness and the burden of caregiving. Furthermore, research on physical activity interventions should examine whether they will benefit from collaborative, social problem-solving models of behavior change that link individual and group-mediated interventions. The final challenge proposed is research to examine viable ways of linking these interventions to population-based health promotion activity programs.

Cohesion: Conceptual and Measurement Issues

The constitutive and operational definitions of group cohesion have varied across various disciplines in group dynamics. Recently, it has been suggested that a conceptualization of cohesion proposed by Carron, Widmeyer, and Brawley could have broad research applicability for different types of groups. However, results from a few studies have raised questions about the validity of this suggestion. One reason that these studies did not support the suggestion is that they failed to take into account the varied nature of groups and group cohesiveness. To clarify issues associated with measuring cohesion and testing various research questions, this article provides a general definition of cohesiveness, a discussion of the theoretical implications of that definition, and some suggestions for the conditions and procedures necessary to examine the structure of group cohesion in a variety of group contexts.The constitutive and operational definitions of group cohesion have varied across various disciplines in group dynamics. Recently, it has been suggested that a conceptualization of cohesion propose...

Older adults with chronic disease: benefits of group-mediated counseling in the promotion of physically active lifestyles.

In this 12-month trial standard exercise training was compared with a group-mediated cognitive-behavioral (GMCB) intervention with respect to effects on long-term adherence and change in physical function of older adults who were either at risk for or had cardiovascular disease. Participants (147 older men and women) were randomized to the 2 treatments. Outcomes included self-reportedphysical activity, fitness, and self-efficacy. The GMCB treatment produced greater improvements on all outcomes than did standard exercise therapy. Regardless of treatment assignment, men had more favorable change on the study outcomes than did women. Analysis of a self-regulatory process measure in the GMCB group revealed that change in barriers efficacy was related to change in physical activity and fitness. Results suggest that teaching older adults to integrate physical activity into their lives via GMCB leads to better long-term outcomes than standardized exercise therapy.

Predicting the intentions and behavior of exercise initiates using two forms of self-efficacy.

The general objective of the study was to examine the influence of various aspects of self-efficacy on the exercise attendance of novice exercisers. This objective had three distinct features. First, self-efficacy was operationalized as both perceptions toovercome barriers and appraisals of ability toschedule regular exercise sessions. Second, a more unstructured, less regimented, form of exercise that required greater personal control was examined—the forms of activity chosen and self-regulated by novice participants. Third, individuals in the initiation stage of their exercise history were studied. Results indicated that both forms of efficacy (barrier and scheduling) significantly predicted behavioral intention (BI) throughout the exercise program (R2 changes=.13–.26,ps<.02). BI was found to be the best predictor of the first 2 months of attendance (R2 change=.12,p<.05), while scheduling efficacy and past behavior best predicted attendance during the last 2 months (R2 change=.16 and .24,p<.02 andp<.001, respectively). A model combining both social cognitive variables (efficacy beliefs) and behavioral variables (past attendance) captured more variation in predicting the last 2 months of attendance than a model involving only social-cognitive variables.

Studying Adherence to Therapeutic Regimens: Overview, Theories, Recommendations

Prediction of adherence and planning of behavior change can be systematically accomplished by using or modifying well-investigated theories. An overview of these models and recommendations for their use is offered. Control Clin Trials 2000;21:156S-163S

Self-efficacy for Exercise in Cardiac Rehabilitation Review and Recommendations

Despite the numerous physical and psychosocial benefits of exercise for coronary heart disease survivors, non-adherence to cardiac rehabilitation (CR) exercise is a major problem. Adherence to the lifestyle behavior change associated with CR involves both physical and self-regulatory skills. While self-regulatory efficacy is clearly linked to exercise adherence and adjustment, the literature on the relationship between self-efficacy and exercise among CR participants has not been systematically reviewed. A search of relevant databases identified 41 CR studies. Few studies measured self-regulatory efficacy for actions that facilitate adherence. Most studies examined self-efficacy during the intensive center-based phase of CR, with little attention to long-term maintenance. The CR literature could benefit by examining (a) self-efficacy as a major rehabilitation outcome, (b) measurement of self-regulatory efficacy for behavior change, (c) suspected moderators of self-efficacy (i.e. gender, age), and (d) self-efficacy relative to maintenance.

Moms in motion: a group-mediated cognitive-behavioral physical activity intervention

BackgroundWhen examining the prevalence of physical inactivity by gender and age, women over the age of 25 are at an increased risk for sedentary behavior. Childbearing and motherhood have been explored as one possible explanation for this increased risk. Post natal exercise studies to date demonstrate promising physical and psychological outcomes, however few physical activity interventions have been theory-driven and tailored to post natal exercise initiates. The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of a group-mediated cognitive behavioral intervention based upon social-cognitive theory and group dynamics (GMCB) to a standard care postnatal exercise program (SE).MethodA randomized, two-arm intervention design was used. Fifty-seven post natal women were randomized to one of two conditions: (1) a standard exercise treatment (SE) and (2) a standard exercise treatment plus group-mediated cognitive behavioral intervention (GMCB). Participants in both conditions participated in a four-week intensive phase where participants received standard exercise training. In addition, GMCB participants received self-regulatory behavioral skills training via six group-mediated counseling sessions. Following the intensive phase, participants engaged in a four-week home-based phase of self-structured exercise. Measures of physical activity, barrier efficacy, and proximal outcome expectations were administered and data were analyzed using ANCOVA procedures.Results and discussionANCOVA of change scores for frequency, minutes, and volume of physical activity revealed significant treatment effects over the intensive and home-based phases (ps < 0.01). In addition, ANCOVA of change in mean barrier efficacy and proximal outcome expectations at the conclusion of the intensive phase demonstrated that GMCB participants increased their initial level of barrier efficacy and outcome expectations while SE participants decreased (p < 0.05).ConclusionWhile both exercise programs resulted in improvements to exercise participation, the GMCB intervention produced greater improvement in overall physical activity, barrier efficacy and proximal outcome expectations.

Role efficacy, role clarity, and role performance effectiveness

The main purpose of the study was to examine role clarity as a moderator of the role efficacy-role performance relationship. A secondary issue was to investigate the influence of role clarity on role efficacy and role performance. On the basis of Bandura’s theorizing, it was hypothesized that role efficacy should be a good predictor of role performance effectiveness only under conditions of high role clarity. Individuals reporting higher role clarity were expected to be more efficacious and perform better than those with lower role clarity. Consistent with hypotheses, role clarity moderated the prospective relationship between role efficacy and role performance effectiveness in the predicted direction for offensive role functions. Individuals who reported higher role clarity also reported higher role efficacy and performed better than those with lower role clarity. Results are discussed in the context of self-efficacy theory. Further prospective examinations, as well as experimental designs, are recommended.

Healthy-eater Identity and Self-efficacy Predict Healthy Eating Behavior: A Prospective View

Identity and Self-efficacy Theories were used to examine the relationship between healthy-eater identity, self-efficacy for healthy eating and healthy eating. Measures of healthy-eater identity, perception of healthy eating, nutrition knowledge, self-efficacy for both intake of fruits and vegetables and foods of low nutritional value were completed by 101 university students and staff. Two weeks later, participants recalled recent consumption of (a) fruits and vegetables and (b) foods of low nutritional value. For both eating outcomes, healthy-eater identity was a significant predictor after controlling for nutrition knowledge. The addition of self-efficacy improved prediction in the case of both eating outcomes.

Self-Efficacy and Healthy Behavior

People do not always act in their own best interest. Too many of us smoke too much, drink too much, eat too much, drive too fast, get too much sun, engage in high-risk sexual activities, fail to wear seat belts—the list goes on. Psychologists have devoted much effort to understanding why people engage in behavior that seems self-destructive, and why they fail to do what they surely know is good for them, or at least will be in the long run (e.g., Baumeister & Scher, 1988). Health psychologists have been among the most active in the search for an understanding of why people engage in unsafe and unhealthy behaviors and why they have such great difficulty altering unhealthy behavior patterns and adapting healthier ones. Beliefs about personal control or efficacy are featured prominently in each of the major models or theories of health-related behavior change. This chapter is concerned with the role of perceived personal control in people’s decisions about behaviors that affect their physical health, with a major focus on self-efficacy theory and research.