Lawrence R. Wheeless

The Role of Teacher Immediacy as a Motivational Factor in Student Learning: Using Meta-Analysis to Test a Causal Model

This report uses meta-analysis to derive correlations between the variables of teacher immediacy, cognitive learning, and affective learning. A model was constructed such that the perception of teacher immediacy, a behavior, generates an intermediate outcome of affect, a motivation, which in turn increases cognitive learning outcome. The data across all the included investigations are consistent with that model. The results suggest that high levels of teacher immediacy function as a means of increasing the motivation of a student to learn, and that such motivation increases the cognitive mastery of material.

An experimental study of teachers’ verbal and nonverbal immediacy and students’ affective and cognitive learning

Previous research involving few experiments generally claims that higher nonverbal and verbal immediacy by teachers increases students’ affective and cognitive learning. In this study, experimental manipulation of combinations of nonverbal and verbal immediacy allowed us to more precisely test these causal links in relation to recall, learning loss, and affective learning. Obtained effects strengthened previous research associating teacher nonverbal immediacy with enhanced cognitive and affective learning outcomes. However, higher verbal immediacy in the experimental manipulations, when combined with higher and lower nonverbal immediacy, was not observed to produce greater cognitive learning. Correlations among recall, learning loss, and affective learning measures were significant, but the cognitive measures were not strongly associated.

An Investigation of Receiver Apprehension and Social Context Dimensions of Communication Apprehension.

This study discusses the nature of communication apprehension and self‐report instruments designed to measure it. The Personal Report of Communication Apprehension (PRCA) and a 45‐item instrument focusing on apprehension in the reception of communication were used. Two independent factors related to source versus receiver apprehension were discovered. No dimensions of communication apprehension related to social contexts (formal versus informal) were discovered. An initial 20‐item self‐report instrument labeled the Receiver Apprehension Test (RA T) was developed.

Communication apprehension of elementary and secondary students and teachers

A series of studies are reported that indicate a substantial increase in the average communication apprehension level of children occurs between kindergarten and grade 5 and that a disproportionately greater number of teachers with high communication apprehension teach at the lower elementary school level as compared to the upper levels. Suggestions for needed research are outlined and discussed. The development of two new scales designed to measure the communication orientations of children in grades K‐12, the Personal Report of Communication Fear (PRCF) and the Shyness Scale (SS), is also reported.

The effects of attitude, credibility, and homophily on selective exposure to information

This paper reviews and criticizes selective exposure literature. Based upon that critique the following hypotheses were tested: (I) Receivers’ attitudes toward sources and concepts will significantly discriminate between those who selectively expose themselves to information and those who selectively reject exposure to information; and (2) receivers who selectively seek to expose themselves to information will have significantly higher attitudes toward the sources and concepts involved than receivers who selectively reject exposure to information. Attitude intensity and involvement, along with perceptions of source competence, sociability, composure, character, and homophily were significant independent predictors of selection‐rejection behavior with the higher means on these variables in the selection group.

The relationship of three types of communication apprehension to classroom achievement

This study was designed to assess the impact of oral, receiver, and writing communication apprehension on classroom achievement in an interpersonal communication course, and to determine the relationships among these variables. Three hypotheses and one research question were posited. Results indicated that oral and receiver communication apprehension have a significant and deleterious effect on student achievement. The results also suggested that questions regarding the additive effects of oral, receiver, and writing communication apprehension may be of little consequence.

Cultural differences in disclosiveness as a function of locus of control

This study focuses upon disclosiveness of persons of American and non‐Western cultural origins as a function of locus of control. The hypothesis and questions posed focused on potential American and non‐Western differences in disclosiveness that might be mediated by internal and/or external loci of control. The 360 respondents were American and international students studying in the USA. Analyses detected generally low‐level differences in disclosiveness (and locus of control) between persons of American and non‐Western cultural origins. However, when separate analyses were conducted for internals and externals, the persons with external loci of control displayed substantially more disclosiveness differences based upon their cultural origins. Locus of control appeared to be a meaningful construct that can help explain the reason (s) for normative cultural differences in disclosiveness.

Nonverbal communication expectancies about teachers and enrollment behavior in distance learning

This study explored a possible relationship between students’ expectations for teacher nonverbal immediacy and their enrollment in a distance learning course. Before classes began, questionnaires were completed by community college students (N= 182) enrolled in a telecourse or classroom course, indicating expectancies for teacher nonverbal immediacy during the upcoming semester. Distant students expected less nonverbal immediacy from telecourse teachers than on‐site students expected of their teachers. Students with previous distance learning experience had slightly higher expectancies than those with no experience.

A reinforcement model of the relationships of supervisors' general communication styles and conflict management styles to task attraction

The conceptual similarities and logical relationships between the constructs of general communication styles and conflict management styles suggested that they should be related in use by supervisors. Based upon reward and punishment concepts of reinforcement that underpin attraction theories, we predicted certain relationships among these styles and the task attraction of supervisors. To test these expectations, 227 questionnaires from subordinates in 12 companies served as the data base. Hypotheses were supported demonstrating substantial relationships between general communication styles and conflict management styles, as well as very substantial relationships between the style constructs and task attraction of supervisors.

Aggressive communication and informational reception apprehension: The influence of listening anxiety and intellectual inflexibility on trait argumentativeness and verbal aggressiveness

Recent training efforts designed to strengthen student argumentation skills and decrease verbally aggressive tendencies have yielded mixed results (Rancer et al., 1997, 2000). Inherent in these efforts is the belief that an individuals use of verbal aggression is implicitly related to law argumentative behavior and a weak system for generating arguments (Infante, 1988). As an extension of this research, we examined the relationships among trait‐like argumentativeness (Infante & Rancer, 1982), trait‐like verbal aggressiveness (Infante & Wigley, 1986) (VA), and Wheeless, Preiss, and Gayles (1997) construct of informational reception apprehension (IRA). Results indicated that two IRA factors, listening anxiety and intellectual inflexibility, were significant predictors of both aggressive communication traits. Further, both IRA factors accounted for greater variance in trait‐like argumentativeness than in trait‐like VA. Implications of these findings as they relate to Infantes (1987) “argumentative skill deficiency model,” as well as suggestions for future research are discussed.