Leanne Whiteside-Mansell

Life at Home: Same Time, Different Places — An Examination of the HOME Inventory in Different Cultures

In this paper we review literature on the use of the HOME Inventory across cultures. We address issues pertaining to measurement equivalence and validity. Specifically, we focus on: (a) changes in the content of HOME made by researchers, (b) distributional properties of HOME scores, (c) the factor structure of HOME, and (d) correlations between HOME, family characteristics, child characteristics and environmental conditions. In most affluent, western countries, with their individualist orientations, HOME was used essentially as it was originally constructed. Researchers in less industrialized, more collectivist countries tended to express greater scepticism about the appropriateness of some HOME items, and several teams of researchers made modifications in the instrument. The HOME total score showed theoretically meaningful (and similar) correlations with family structure, family status and child outcome measures across many cultures. Evidence attesting to the cultural equivalence (and validity) of HOME subscales was far less plentiful and compelling. In general, there seemed greater cross-cultural equivalence for items assessing cognitively stimulating aspects of the environment than for items assessing socioemotional support. The usefulness of the Inventory in other cultures and for cross-cultural comparisons depends on the purposes one has for using a measure of the home environment.

Measuring the Home Environments of Children in Early Adolescence

This article describes the development of the Early Adolescent version of the Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment (EA-HOME) Inventory and presents information regarding its usefulness in 5 sociocultural groups (African Americans, Chinese Americans, European Americans, Mexican Americans, and Dominican Americans). EA-HOME is designed to measure the quantity and quality of stimulation, support, and structure available to children ages 10 through 15 in their home environments. Results indicate high interobserver agreement for those using the measure. EA-HOME scores were significantly related to scores on measures of family context and child development for each sociocultural group, but patterns of association varied somewhat across groups.

Mean and Covariance Structures Analyses: An Examination of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale among Adolescents and Adults.

Evidence of equivalence of measures is necessary before comparisons can be made across groups. Comparability of a measure is a matter of degrees from weak to strong. Many examinations of factorial invariance examine the factor pattern coefficients but not the stronger requirement of equivalence of intercept terms. This study examined the cross-age comparability of the widely used Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES) in a sample of adolescents and adults in families receiving Aid to Families With Dependent Children (AFDC). Multiple-group mean and covariance structures (MACS) analysis was used to demonstrate strong invariance of the measures and make comparisons across age groups. Similarities of means in the RSES were found across groups.

Parenting Stress of Low-Income Parents of Toddlers and Preschoolers: Psychometric Properties of a Short Form of the Parenting Stress Index

SYNOPSIS Objective. This study examines psychometric properties of 2 scales of the Parenting Stress Index—Short Form (PSI—SF) in a sample of preschool children from low-income families. Design. The factor structure, reliability, and validity of the Parental Distress and Parent—Child Dysfunctional Interaction subscales were assessed for 1122 Early Head Start parents of 15 (n = 959), 25 (n = 899), and 37-month-old (n = 845) children in a multisite study. Confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) compared the fit of 2-factor scales that are recommended by the developer with theoretically derived 5-factor scales. Results. CFA indicated that the 5-factor scales fit the data better than the 2-factor scales. Both 2 and 5-factor scales had high internal consistency, and the pattern of relations between the new scales and validity constructs support their usefulness. Conclusions. The PSI—SF scales can be helpful in clinical applications because the proposed scales clarify relations between parent and child outcomes and specific aspects of stress due to parenting.

It Takes Time: Impacts of Early Head Start that Lead to Reductions in Maternal Depression Two Years Later

The Early Head Start Research and Evaluation Project, a random-assignment evaluation, found a broad pattern of positive impacts for children and families. However, there were no program impacts on depression or use of mental health services by the time children reached age 3, at the end of the Early Head Start (EHS) program. This paper presents recent findings from the follow-up study in the spring prior to the children entering kindergarten, when a positive program impact emerged for reducing maternal depression. Results show that earlier program impacts on children and parents (when children were 2 and 3 years of age) mediated, or led to, the delayed impact on maternal depression. The combination of the most promising child factors accounted for over 57% of the later impact on depression, while the most promising parent factors accounted for over 35% of the later impact on depression. Implications for EHS programs are discussed.

Parenting and Children's Behavior at 36 Months: Equivalence Between African American and European American Mother - Child Dyads

Objective. This study examines the similarity of parenting and the associations between maternal behavior and child problem and prosocial behavior across two racial groups. Design. Using data from the NICHD Study of Early Child Care (SECC), analyses included an examination of the comparability of maternal and child behavior between African American (n = 123) and European American (n = 953) families using multiple-group mean and covariance structures analysis (MACS). Observational data from two mother - child activities and maternal report of child behavior were used to construct three parenting and four child latent constructs. Results. Comparable measures of parenting (Responsive, Harsh, and Intrusive), child problem behavior (Externalizing and Internalizing), and child prosocial behavior (Compliance and Expressiveness) were found using partial invariance methods across racial groups. The associations between harsh, intrusive and responsive parenting and child behaviors were found to be similar across racial groups. Conclusions. Generality in the organization of parenting and similarity in their association to child behavior obtain across racial groups.

A comprehensive substance abuse treatment program for women and their children: an initial evaluation

This article examines a comprehensive, residential substance abuse treatment program for women and their children. A majority of the 72 participants studied were African American single mothers, for whom crack/cocaine was the drug of choice. The women and their children were assessed repeatedly during treatment, and at 3, 6, and 12 months postdischarge. Program impact was estimated by comparing the outcomes of three groups that differed in the amount of treatment they received: early dropouts, late dropouts, and treatment graduates. Program graduates showed more positive outcomes than the nongraduate comparison groups in the areas of drug use and negative consequences of use, employment and self-sufficiency, and family interaction skills. Young children enrolled in treatment with their mothers were assessed using a developmental screening test, and older children with a measure of drug refusal skills. Results from both child measures suggest substantial improvement.

The Development and Evaluation of an Alcohol and Drug Prevention and Treatment Program for Women and Children: The AR-CARES Program

This study examined the evolution of the Arkansas Center for Addictions Research, Education, and Services (AR-CARES) over a 5-year period and evaluated its impact on women and children. The program was designed to provide comprehensive substance use prevention and treatment services to low-income pregnant and parenting women and their children. The program changed significantly over this time, based upon input from clients and staff, as well as in response to changing community resources. The evaluation suggests that the program had an impact on the substance use of study participants, birth outcomes, and the growth and development of children.

Evolution of obesity in a low birth weight cohort

Objective:The objective of this study was to determine the evolution of obesity status (OS) in a longitudinal cohort of low birth weight preterm (LBWPT) infants to an age of 8 years, and to determine whether rapid weight gain in the first year of life independently predicts 8-year OS.Study Design:In total, 985 infants (birth weight ⩽2500 g, gestation age ⩽37 weeks) were recruited from the nursery in an eight-site intervention research program and were evaluated at an age of 3, 5, 6.5 and 8 years. Weight and height were measured by standard protocol at each visit and body mass index was calculated. Obesity status is ⩾95% for age and sex. Multiple logistic analyses were performed on 8-year OS with predictor variables including infant race, gender, small for gestational age status, birth weight category, neonatal health index, treatment group and first-year weight gain; maternal education and weight status before conception; and HOME Inventory.Result:Overall, 2.3% were OS at an age of 3 years, 6.1% at an age of 5 years, 7.7% at age 6.5 years and 8.7% at an age 8 years. OS varied by birth weight category at each visit. The infants born ⩽1500 g had the lowest prevalence of OS at each age. In the logistic regression, maternal race (Hispanic) (adjusted odds ratio=2.8, confidence interval=1.2 to 6.8), maternal obese status (adjusted odds ratio 3.4, confidence interval=1.5 to 7.8) and first-year weight gain (adjusted odds ratio=2.7, confidence interval=1.9 to 3.9), significantly predicted 8-year OS.Conclusion:OS is common in LBWPT infants during childhood, and prevalence varies by birth weight category. High weight gain in the first year of life is an important predictor of the development of OS in LBWPT children.

Patterns of Parenting Behavior in Young Mothers.

PATTERNS OF PARENTING BEHAVIOR IN YOUNG MOTHERS* Leanne Whiteside-Mansell, Sandra K. Pope, and Robert H. Bradley** Children of young mothers are thought to be at risk for developmental delay and behavioral problems. In this study, the parenting behaviors of 193 White and African American mothers 15-24 years of age were assessed when their children were 12 and 36 months old. Cluster analysis of 3 dimensions of parenting was used to identify 5 types of parenting patterns. Evidence supporting these parenting clusters included interpretable mean scores; expected differences in childrens cognitive and social development; and differences in familial, maternal, and child factors. The strongest discriminating factor-maternal IQ-was associated with more positive parenting behavior patterns. Among the mothers with the lowest IQ scores, the most discriminating factor was the birth of additional children. The results of this study support the assumption that parenting is dynamic and multidimensional. Since the 1960s, when the birth rate among unwed teenagers began increasing and young mothers began shifting away from adoption as an option for providing care for their infants, society has shown accelerated concern for young parents as caregivers. Many young mothers lack financial resources and stable environments; many of their children will spend at least part of their lives in poverty. Children of young mothers are thought to be at risk for developmental delay and behavioral problems because of the low quality of caregiving provided by their young mothers. Although research concerning the direct influence of maternal age on parenting behaviors is mixed (Conger, Yang, & Burgess, 1984; Elster, McAnarney, & Lamb, 1983; Jones, Green, & Krauss, 1980), there is evidence that younger mothers interact differently with their children and are less competent parents than older mothers on some dimensions of parenting. Several studies indicate that young mothers provide less stimulation to their children than older mothers (Brooks-Gunn & Chase-Lansdale, 1991; Carlson, Labarba, Sclafani, & Bowers, 1986; Coll, Vahr, Hoffman, & Oh, 1986; King & Fullard, 1982; Luster & Rhoades, 1989; Parks & Arndt, 1990; Reis, Barbera-Stein, & Bennett, 1986; Schilmoeller & Baranowski, 1985) and, in particular, provide less verbal stimulation to their infants (Coll, Hoffman, & Oh, 1987; Field, Widmayer, Stringer, & Ignatoff, 1980; McAnarney, Lawrence, Ricciuti, Polley, & Szilagyi, 1986; Reis & Herz, 1987; Schilmoeller & Baranowski, 1985; vonWindeguth & Urbano, 1989). In addition, young mothers demonstrate less acceptance of infant behavior (are more punitive) than older mothers (McAnarney et al., 1986; Reis & Herz, 1987). However, Lamb and Ketterlinus (1990), after reviewing the literature, concluded that there is no evidence that young mothers are more likely to neglect or abuse their offspring. Some researchers reason that young women are immature (generally measured by maternal age) and psychologically unprepared to parent. They suggest that young mothers, like adolescents in general, are absorbed with their own needs, have not developed adequate coping mechanisms, and are struggling to gain autonomy (Helm, 1988; Jones et al., 1980). Others argue that age per se may not be the issue. They maintain that young mothers represent a diverse group and that environmental and family factors associated with young parenthood may be more determinative of parenting than the age of the mother (King & Fullard, 1982; Osofsky, Culp, & Ware, 1988; Roosa, Fitzgerald, & Carlson, 1982). Because many young mothers are single, live in poverty, possess few resources, and experience more than normal stresses, it is difficult to separate the influence of environmental factors and young age (Elster et al., 1983; Ketterlinus, Lamb, & Nitz, 1991). In effect, young mothers are often at risk for distress, which makes it more difficult for them to provide nurturant, stimulating care (McLoyd, 1990). …