Lee Crust

Relationship between mental toughness and physical endurance.

This study tested the criterion validity of the inventory, Mental Toughness 48, by assessing the correlation between mental toughness and physical endurance for 41 male undergraduate sports students. A significant correlation of .34 was found between scores for overall mental toughness and the time a relative weight could be held suspended. Results support the criterion-related validity of the Mental Toughness 48.

Mental toughness in sport: A review

Abstract Athletes, coaches, and applied sports psychologists have consistently referred to mental toughness as one of the most important psychological characteristics related to outcomes and success in elite sport, although researchers have, until recently, devoted little time to studying this concept. This review considers some of the emerging definitions and conceptualizations, and examines how mental toughness might be developed in performers. Qualitative and quantitative approaches to the study of mental toughness are evaluated, and developments in measuring this important concept are discussed. Research that has examined the relationship between mental toughness, performance, and perception are also reviewed. Future directions for research are offered.

Assessing Model Fit: Caveats and Recommendations for Confirmatory Factor Analysis and Exploratory Structural Equation Modeling

Despite the limitations of overgeneralizing cutoff values for confirmatory factor analysis (CFA; e.g., Marsh, Hau, & Wen, 2004), they are still often employed as golden rules for assessing factorial validity in sport and exercise psychology. The purpose of this study was to investigate the appropriateness of using the CFA approach with these cutoff values for typical multidimensional measures. Furthermore, we ought to examine how a model could be respecified to achieve acceptable fit and explored whether exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM) provides a more appropriate assessment of model fit. Six multidimensional measures commonly used in sport and exercise psychology research were examined using CFA and ESEM. Despite demonstrating good validity in previous research, all eight failed to meet the cutoff values proposed by Hu and Bentler. ESEM improved model fit in all measures. In conclusion, we suggest that model misfit in this study demonstrates the problem with interpreting cutoff values rigidly. Furthermore, we recommend ESEM as a preferred approach to examining model fit in multidimensional measures.

Developing Mental Toughness: From Research to Practice

This article reviews recent evidence concerning the development of mental toughness in young athletes, from first involvement in sport through to early adulthood. The role and importance of genetics, environmental factors, and psychological-skills training in the development of mental toughness is discussed. In particular, environmental factors that can be manipulated and influenced by coaches and parents are emphasized to aid the transfer of knowledge from scientific research into applied practice. Of central importance is the development of independent problem-solving and personal responsibility through a challenging yet supportive learning environment. We argue that to develop mental toughness, young athletes must be gradually exposed to, rather than shielded from, demanding situations in training and competition in order to learn how to cope. Also, as athletes become more emotionally mature, they should become increasingly involved in making decisions regarding their own development. Athletes should be encouraged and supported in reflecting upon setbacks and failures that occur as a natural part of the developmental process. Negative experiences, as well as the confidence-boosting outcomes of achieving goals, provide opportunities for personal growth, and allow important lessons to be learned. Various practical suggestions are provided.

Walking the Walk: A Phenomenological Study of Long Distance Walking

Evidence suggests that regular walking can elicit significant psychological benefits, although little evidence exists concerning long distance walking. The purpose of this study was to provide detailed accounts of the experiences of long distance walkers. Phenomenological interviews were conducted with six long distance walkers. Data were transcribed verbatim before researchers independently analyzed the transcripts. Participants reported a cumulative effect with positive feelings increasing throughout the duration of the walk. Long distance walking elicited positive emotions, reduced the effects of life-stress, and promoted an increased sense of well-being and personal growth. Results are aligned to theories and concepts from positive psychology.

An inductive exploration into the flow experiences of European Tour golfers

This study explored perceptions regarding the experience of flow in elite golf; a sport which is different to those studied previously due to its self-paced, stop-start nature. In-depth, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 10 European Tour golfers. Whereas the majority of previous studies have deductively coded data into Csikszentmihalyi’s dimensions, the data in this study were analysed inductively. Thirteen categories were generated which described the flow experiences of these golfers, and these were compared with the original flow dimensions after analysis. In contrast to previous understanding, these golfers reported being aware that they were in flow as it occurred, and seemingly were able to manage their flow experiences. A category describing altered cognitive and kinaesthetic perceptions was also generated which was not accounted for in the existing flow framework, while the participants also suggested that flow was observable (e.g. through changes in behaviour). Findings are discussed in relation to the existing literature, and recommendations made for future research including possible revisions to the flow framework to better describe this experience within golf and other sporting contexts.

The relationship between mental toughness and dispositional flow

Abstract This article tested the relationship between mental toughness (MT) and dispositional flow. A sample of 135 athletes (M age=20.81 years, SD=2.76), derived from University sports teams and local sports clubs, gave informed consent before completing questionnaires to assess MT and dispositional flow. Pearson correlations revealed a significant and positive relationship between total MT and global flow scores (r=0.65, p <0.001). Correlations between total MT and dispositional flow subscales were all found to be significant and positive, ranging from 0.26 to 0.68. Correlations between global flow and MT subscales were also all significant and positive, ranging between 0.43 and 0.65. Linear regression analyses found MT subscales to account for 45% of the variance in disposition flow, and flow subscales to account for 50% of the variance in MT. These results suggest a reciprocal relationship between MT and flow.

‘What it takes’: perceptions of mental toughness and its development in an English Premier League Soccer Academy

The purpose of this qualitative study was to undertake an in-depth exploration of coaches’ and support staff perceptions regarding mental toughness and its development in the pressurised and distinctive sub-cultural milieu of an English Premier League (EPL) Soccer Academy. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with eight key staff responsible for a range of different roles in the development of young players. From the analysis, four general dimensions emerged as salient to mental toughness: competitiveness with self and others, mindset, resilience and personal responsibility. To enhance mental toughness, coaches sought to foster in the young players two key characteristics: independence and resourcefulness, via a challenging but supportive learning environment. Importantly, attention to the psychological development of young players was reported to be inadequately addressed in comparison with other aspects of performance such as technical skill or physical conditioning. Although mental toughness was acknowledged to be a crucial factor in securing a professional contract in the EPL, coaches reported a relative lack of knowledge about effectively nurturing this quality in players.

A phenomenological exploration of exercise mental toughness: perceptions of exercise leaders and regular exercisers

Although elite sport has provided an ideal context for exploring mental toughness (MT), currently, there is scant research examining how this construct might be equally applicable in exercise settings, where high rates of attrition have been reported. The present research, therefore, aimed to address this gap, and to understand and conceptualise exercise mental toughness (EMT) through in-depth phenomenological interviews with a range of exercise leaders and exercise participants. Seven qualified and experienced exercise leaders and seven regular and frequent exercisers from formal exercise environments (i.e. gym and fitness classes) were interviewed. Interviews were digitally recorded, transcribed verbatim and analysed independently by members of the interdisciplinary research team. Key themes were agreed and member checking was used to promote trustworthiness of interpretations. MT was recognisable in exercise settings, with 10 general dimensions found to be relatively consistent with conceptualisations derived from elite sport (e.g. commitment, focus, emotional control, etc.). Importantly, present findings reveal how mentally tough exercisers think and behave in exercise settings. Some negative consequences were also reported such as over-training and training with injuries. The article also discusses how components of EMT may be valuable in terms of exercise maintenance and relapse prevention during exercise behaviour change.

‘Some of these people aren’t as fit as us …’: experiencing the ageing, physically active body in cardiac rehabilitation

There is a dearth of research on how the physically active body is experienced during rehabilitation from serious illness. The present study investigated older adults’ embodied experiences and changing perceptions of self in one cardiac rehabilitation (CR) scheme in the East of England. Fourteen interviews were completed with participants in a CR scheme. A figurational approach was utilised which emphasised the need for participants to delineate their own logic of experience from the perspective of their active body during CR. Data were thematically analysed and individual experiences were situated in wider power relationships within and beyond the exercise class. Recurring themes emerged including participants’ perceptions of lost control during illness, the centrality of embodied sensations during rehabilitation and the interdependence of their embodied experiences with those of other bodies through overt and covert monitoring of physiological, emotional and psychological responses to rehabilitation. During rehabilitation, participants negotiated a complex interweaving of identities which centred upon their changing sense of embodied ‘I’ in relation to other bodies in the rehabilitation figuration, who were conceptualised according to fluid ‘we’ and ‘them’ relationships. Self-images were socially produced and moderated by health and exercise professionals and other participants. The extent to which participants were empowered within the exercise setting was highly heterogeneous. Findings suggest that the messages participants receive about CR must reflect the heterogeneity of recovery trajectories that could be experienced.