Leif Edward Ottesen Kennair

Children's risky play from an evolutionary perspective: the anti-phobic effects of thrilling experiences.

This theoretical article views childrens risky play from an evolutionary perspective, addressing specific evolutionary functions and especially the anti-phobic effects of risky play. According to the non-associative theory, a contemporary approach to the etiology of anxiety, children develop fears of certain stimuli (e.g., heights and strangers) that protect them from situations they are not mature enough to cope with, naturally through infancy. Risky play is a set of motivated behaviors that both provide the child with an exhilarating positive emotion and expose the child to the stimuli they previously have feared. As the childs coping skills improve, these situations and stimuli may be mastered and no longer be feared. Thus fear caused by maturational and age relevant natural inhibition is reduced as the child experiences a motivating thrilling activation, while learning to master age adequate challenges. It is concluded that risky play may have evolved due to this anti-phobic effect in normal child development, and it is suggested that we may observe an increased neuroticism or psychopathology in society if children are hindered from partaking in age adequate risky play.

Sex Differences in Jealousy: A Study from Norway

Two infidelity scenarios and the Distress about Mating Rivals Questionnaire were administered to 506 undergraduate students, 202 men and 304 women. The results from the infidelity scenarios strongly suggest that men become more upset by sexual aspects of infidelity compared to women. Women were more upset than men by their partner’s emotional commitment to another woman. Data from the Distress about Mating Rivals Questionnaire showed that men relatively more than women will be more distressed by a rival that has higher status and prestige, better financial prospects and more physical strength compared to themselves. In contrast, women would be relatively more distressed than men by a rival that is more kind and understanding, has a more attractive face and a more attractive body than themselves. The results lend support to evolutionary based explanations for the observed sex differences.

Metacognitive Therapy for Depression in Adults: A Waiting List Randomized Controlled Trial with Six Months Follow-Up

This randomized controlled trial examines the efficacy of metacognitive therapy (MCT) for depression. Thirty-nine patients with depression were randomly assigned to immediate MCT (10 sessions) or a 10-week wait list period (WL). The WL-group received 10 sessions of MCT after the waiting period. Two participants dropped out from WL and none dropped out of immediate MCT treatment. Participants receiving MCT improved significantly more than the WL group. Large controlled effect sizes were observed for both depressive (d = 2.51) and anxious symptoms (d = 1.92). Approximately 70–80% could be classified as recovered at post-treatment and 6 months follow-up following immediate MCT, whilst 5% of the WL patients recovered during the waiting period. The results suggest that MCT is a promising treatment for depression. Future controlled studies should compare MCT with other active treatments.

The efficacy of teaching psychology students exposure and response prevention for obsessive-compulsive disorder

The aim of the study was to investigate whether inexperienced student therapists could successfully learn exposure and response prevention for obsessive-compulsive disorder. Twenty out of 21 outpatients completed treatment as delivered by ten psychology students. A total of 60 hours group supervision and approximately 30 hours with individual supervision was given to the students over the course of three semesters. Large effect sizes were observed for measures of symptoms and depression. Sixty-two percent (N= 13) of the intent to treat group achieved clinical significant change and 81% no longer met the diagnosis criteria (N= 17). The treatment effects observed at the 6 month follow-up period were promising. The results are encouraging for training students in evidence based treatment for specific disorders.

Revisiting judgment of strategic self-promotion and competitor derogation tactics

Competition for mates is a primary social psychological conflict. One may acquire a mate by promoting oneself by highlighting features that the opposite sex has evolved to desire in mates. One may also attack competitors, in an attempt to reduce their perceived mate value. The effectiveness judgment of 24 separate self-promotion and competitor derogation tactics were studied in two samples of Norwegian undergraduates (n = 270 and n = 350) using a Sex of Actor by Mating Context (short-term and long-term) factorial design. Analyses of covariates (controlling for sociosexuality, sex of participant, and relationship status) replicate the original findings of Schmitt and Buss ((1996) Strategic self-promotion and competitor derogation: Sex and context effects on the perceived effectiveness of mate attraction tactics, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 1185–1204) in one of the world’s most gender-egalitarian culture. This suggests that sexual strategies theory predicts mate acquisition behavior cross-culturally.

Factors predicting the probability of initiating sexual intercourse by context and sex

Despite men initiating sex more than women there is considerable variance within the sexes. This study is the first to consider the impact of multiple predictors from the literature, and investigates how factors, such as relationship length, sociosexuality, and different aspects of self-perceived mate value among others, independently and interactively predict initiation of sexual intercourse in both short-term sexual and long-term romantic mating contexts, testing predictions from Sexual strategies theory. For long-term relationships, positive partner bond increased initiative to sexual intercourse for women. For men, self-perceived independence increased probability of taking the initiative, while relationship attachment decreased probability. For short-term relations, the desire component of the sociosexual orientation inventory increased probability of initiation for both sexes, while male initiative was increased by pleasure reasons for sex. The impact of individual predictors on initiating intercourse is influenced by being included in a multidimensional model, and relationship context affects the impact of the predictors.

Sexual Regret: Tests of Competing Explanations of Sex Differences

The current study sought to answer three key questions about explaining the emotion of regret in the domain of casual sex: Are sex differences in sexual regret robust or attenuated in a highly egalitarian culture? What proximate psychological variables might explain sex differences in sexual regret? And what accounts for within-sex variation in experiences of sexual regret about casual sex. We conducted a study of 263 Norwegian students (ages 19–37) who reported how much they regretted having either engaged in, or passed up, their most recent casual sexual experience. Sex differences in sexual regret are not attenuated in this sexually egalitarian culture. The study revealed sex differences in worries about pregnancy, STIs, and reputation; however, these predictors did not succeed in accounting for the sex differences in regret engaging in casual sex. Sexual gratification and socio-sexual orientation both predicted the sex differences in casual sex regret. In contrast, only socio-sexual orientation attenuated the sex difference in regret passing up casual sex. Predictors of within-sex variation in casual sexual regret included worry about sexual reputation, experienced gratification during the encounter, and socio-sexual orientation. Discussion focuses on implications for the psychological design features of this relatively neglected emotion.

In search of moderators of sex differences in forced-choice jealousy responses: Effects of 2D:4D digit ratio and relationship infidelity experiences

In this study, we examined how jealousy responses in men and women were affected by 2D:4D digit ratio, a correlate of prenatal testosterone exposure, and actual infidelity experiences using the forced-choice paradigm. Extending the previous literature on responses to infidelity, we examined whether specific types of infidelity and whether active manipulation of memories of actual infidelity experiences affected jealousy responses. We were able to replicate the predicted sex differences in jealousy responses in a sample of heterosexual Norwegian students with committed relationship experiences (N = 480). Further, we found that 2D:4D ratio was negatively associated with sexual jealousy, but as predicted, this effect was fully accounted for by sex of respondent. Men reported more sexual jealousy than women regardless of experiencing actual infidelity and regardless of infidelity type. Actual infidelity experiences produced more pronounced sex-typical differences when memories of these were activated through question order manipulation. Suggestions for future studies on jealousy responses to infidelity experiences are made.

Evolutionary Psychopathology and Life History: A Clinician's Perspective

Life history theory is one of the major approaches within evolutionary theory, combining the adaptationist approach with developmental constraints and including how organisms must invest resources strategically (Kaplan & Gangestad, 2005). Del Giudice has offered a truly biological approach to evolutionary psychology through his previous work on life history theory (e.g., Del Giudice, 2009) and is one of the rising stars of the field. It is therefore most welcome when Del Giudice in his current article considers evolutionary psychopathology from this perspective, something I suggested might be fruitful and necessary a decade ago (Kennair, 2003). Del Giudice offers a veritable tour de force, spanning an enormous amount of literature and developing an original approach by considering all mental disorders from a life history perspective, or more precisely from a fast versus slow life history perspective. There is an impressive amount of work behind this article, and although I cannot do justice to all points he raises, I do attempt to provide a clinician’s perspective to some of the conditions that I am most familiar with. It is true; the field of psychopathology lacks theoretical integration (Kennair, 2011, 2012; Nesse & Stein, 2012). There is little consensus on what constitutes mental disorder, and despite work from an evolutionary approach (e.g., Wakefield, 1999), we will probably need research from an evolutionary modular and functional approach for such approaches to fulfill their potential. A comprehensive life history perspective might have the explanatory power to aid such integration, at least as part of the process of expanding the developmental and individual differences level of analysis to an evolutionary psychology approach to psychopathology (Kennair, 2003, 2011, 2012). Although I am very fond of Del Giudice’s work, and welcome his interest in evolutionary psychopathology, I have two points I would like to raise: (a) the possible limitations of reducing life history theory to a fast versus slow approach, and (b) the possible consequences of some of the disorders’ treatability for a life history approach. I take the clinician’s perspective in the current commentary. As both an evolutionary psychologist and a clinician, I believe it is the latter that may contribute the most interesting perspective for further development of the proposed taxonomy.

Worry and Metacognitions as Predictors of Anxiety Symptoms: A Prospective Study

Both worry and metacognitive beliefs have been found to be related to the development of anxiety, but metacognitive theory (Wells and Matthews, 1994; Wells, 2009) suggest that metacognitive beliefs may play a more prominent role. The aim of the present prospective study was to examine whether worry, metacognitive beliefs or the interaction between worry and metacognitive beliefs, were the best predictor of anxiety over time, utilizing a longitudinal, prospective study design. An undergraduate student sample (N = 190) was assessed on measures of worry (PSWQ), metacognitive beliefs (MCQ-30) and anxiety (BAI) at three points in time over a 7-month period. A mixed-model analysis revealed that both worry and metacognitive beliefs predicted development of anxiety, independently of each other, with no indication of an interaction-effect (PSWQ * MCQ-30). Further, analyses of the MCQ-30 subscales indicated that negative metacognitive beliefs may be particularly important in the development of anxiety. While gender was correlated with worry, gender predicted anxiety beyond the effect of worry. Taken together, the results imply that both worry and metacognitive beliefs play a prominent role for the development of anxiety.