Lenahan O'Connell

The Impact of Local Supporters on Smart Growth Policy Adoption

Problem: To succeed, the smart growth movement must be active at the local level. However, little is known about the movements composition and effects. Purpose: This research aims to identify who pursues smart growth at the local level, what types of smart growth policies are being adopted, and the impact of supporters on the types of policies adopted. Methods: Using surveys I conducted with planning and development officials in 202 cities and other data, I estimate regression models predicting the effects of local activism and other possible influences on the number of smart growth, land preserving, and inner-city redevelopment policies these cities adopted. Results and conclusions: I found that (a) as the number of types of groups promoting smart growth increases, cities adopt more smart growth policies; (b) the supporters of smart growth have more impact on the adoption of land preserving policies than on the policies associated with inner-city redevelopment; and (c) cities in states that require comprehensive planning adopt more smart growth policies. Takeaway for practice: Politics prevents many cities from adopting comprehensive smart growth policies, though state laws that mandate comprehensive planning at the local level appear to encourage them. Planners can build support for smart growth by inviting environmental groups to the table and by devising smart growth policies that encourage both land preservation and inner-city densification. Research support: None.

Development of Procedures for Identifying High-Crash Locations and Prioritizing Safety Improvements

The objectives of this study were to review and analyze the current procedures for identifying high-crash locations and evaluating and prioritizing roadway safety improvements at high-crash locations, and to recommend improved methods. Several tasks were undertaken to accomplish these objectives, including the following: review of program guidelines and procedures used by other states to prioritize improvements at high-crash locations; review and documentation of Kentuckys current procedure; update of Kentuckys Crash Buildup Program software to be compatible with the 2000 crash report form; development of new software to assist in estimating the benefits and costs of potential projects for inclusion in the Hazard Elimination Program; and conversion of the dynamic programming software from mainframe to PC. Results from the study include improved methods for identifying high-frequency crash locations and prioritizing those locations after preliminary analyses indicated a need to consider improvements at a crash site. Software was developed to assist in producing a generalized estimate of the benefits of potential projects for inclusion in the Hazard Elimination Program. To use the software, the user must input the improvements to be made, the current level of crashes for the highway segment, and estimated project costs. Adjustments can also be made for key factors such as discount rate and projected traffic growth. Features include a menu of types of improvement projects and related reduction factors, and benefit-cost comparisons for each project. Revisions were recommended for updating and enhancing the Crash Buildup Program to achieve compatibility with the current crash data report form and for translating the dynamic programming module from a mainframe operation to a PC-based system. It appears that an increased level of functionality has been achieved as a result of the series of modifications and improvements.

Paying for Locally Owned Roads: A Crisis in Local Government Highway Finance

The past two decades have witnessed substantial changes in the dynamics of state—local relationships for highway funding. We argue that four factors have produced a funding crisis for local governments: an increase in developed land and locally owned roads; a rise in construction and maintenance costs; devolution of highway financing responsibility from the states to localities with a reduction in intergovernmental transfers; and more wear and tear on roads due to increased vehicle miles traveled. Local governments can delay maintenance and build fewer new facilities, but eventually many will seek new sources of revenues to fund their growing responsibilities. We identify several potential financing mechanisms: impact fees and smart growth policies; local option transportation taxes; nontraditional taxes and fees such as transportation utility fees and land taxes; and low-cost debt financing from state infrastructure banks. We discuss challenges faced by local governments in continuing to meet their responsibilities and financing needs.

An Empirical Examination of the Statutory Characteristics and Effects of Highway and Transportation Commissions on DOT Capital Management Capacity

A majority of the states have created, by statute, some type of external body (such as a board or commissions) to oversee their departments of transportation (DOTs). The focus of this research is on two types of commissions: highway-only commissions and multimodal transportation commissions. We review the authorizing statutes that establish these boards and commissions to identify their statutorily defined membership characteristics and roles. We then empirically estimate the possible contribution of commissionsstatutory characteristics to a measure of DOT capital and infrastructure management capacity taken from the Government Performance Project. The findings suggest that commissions are designed to promote the general interest in the efficient allocation of transportation resources. They also suggest that large commissions may improve management capacity by fostering more open discussion. There were no significant differences between highway-only and multimodal transportation commissions.

The Crisis in State Highway Finances: Its Roots, Current Effects, and Some Possible Remedies

This paper focuses on the American states and the sources of the expanding structural imbalance between their highway-related revenues on the one hand and expenditures for transportation infrastructure needs on the other. The paper describes the roots of the funding problem over recent decades, looks at some of the responses taken at the state and federal level, and discusses their inherent limitations as solutions to this funding crisis. The paper also presents several policy recommendations for increasing revenues. We demonstrate that a variable rate gas tax indexed to the construction cost index and improvements in automobile fuel efficiency and a tax on large commercial trucks based on equivalent standard axle loads (an esal-mile tax) would more effectively fund the state highway system and reduce the need for more spending on maintenance and new facilities.

An Information Model to Present Proposals to Increase Taxes: Two Examples in the Context of American Values

This article offers an information model for educating the public on the rationale for a tax increase. It argues that citizens exposed to two types of information—a need narrative and an anchor value—are more willing to support a tax increase. The applicability of the model is illustrated with two examples in which the model was used to structure the presentation of information. In both situations, exposure to the specific types of information suggested by the model is associated with support for a tax increase. The conclusion relates the model to the findings of previous research on the attributes of successful referenda campaigns for tax increases.

State Infrastructure Banks and Borrowing Costs for Transportation Projects

State infrastructure banks (SIBs) are state-run revolving loan funds that offer financial assistance for transportation projects mainly through low-interest loans. This study examines the role of SIBs in transportation finance by investigating the extent to which SIBs provide lower cost borrowing than would be available through the municipal bond market. The authors use a two-step research approach: developing a predictive model to estimate the interest rate for the non-SIB financing alternative of municipal bond financing and then calculating the differential interest rate between SIB loans and municipal bonds. The authors also explore the impact of SIB goals, project type, state aid, and state—local equity on the size of the interest rate savings. The authors find that SIB loan interest rates are lower than those of comparable municipal bonds; the size of this interest rate savings is influenced by the SIB goals and state—local equity concerns.

Transportation Commissions as Accountability Structures: A Review of their Statutory Roles and Other Attributes

As of 2004, 36 of the 50 states had created, by statute, some type of external body (such as boards or commissions) to work with their departments of transportation (DOTs). The authors review the authorizing statutes that establish these boards and commissions to identify their statutorily defined responsibilities and attributes. From the literature on governance structures and accountability, three propositions are derived about their likely structure and roles. The authors propose that commissions are designed to (a) ensure broader stakeholder representation, (b) possess oversight roles and responsibilities relevant to resource allocation, and (c) encourage more open discussion and public involvement. The content analysis of the statutes and interviews with DOT officials and commission members provide support for the propositions.

Exploring the Contribution of State and Local-level Conditions to the Adoption of Different Types of Smart Growth Policies and Impact Fees in the United States

This research identifies some of the state and local conditions promoting the adoption of three types of smart growth policies and two types of impact fees in the United States. Factor analysis is used to identify three types of smart growth policies: 1. policies to concentrate new growth, 2. policies to exchange development rights and 3. policies to redevelop the inner city. The two types of impact fees are: development-based and community-based. Conditions at both the state and local level predict the adoption of smart growth policies. Only conditions at the state level predict the adoption of the community-based impact fees. The findings suggest that future research on the impact of population growth on growth regulation contain measures of both local and state level growth. They also suggest smart growth be viewed as multi-dimensional, as cities adopt different types of policies, rather than the complete set of policies, for economic as well as environmental reasons. Last, more research is needed on the role of local environmentalist organizations, whose role in local policy adoption was significant.

Early Stage Benefit Cost Analysis for Estimating Economic Impacts

This study reviewed the various software packages and other methods in use for estimating the economic impacts of proposed transportation projects. A total of 13 economic software packages were examined as potential applications in meeting Kentucky Transportation Cabinets (KYTC’s) business needs. It was determined that only the TREDIS model from the Economic Development Research Group, Inc. or the TranSight model from Regional Economic Models, Inc. could potentially meet Kentucky’s needs as defined in the project. Both the TREDIS model and the TranSight model are comparable in their economic forecasting abilities. They are also similar in that both require the input of data from a travel demand model—usually HERS. The economic benefit outputs for both models are the same including predicted: employment by industry; output by business/industry; wage rates; and gross domestic/regional product. The TREDIS model appears to calculate economic benefits for a wider range of transportation projects, mostly the smaller scale types such as intersection reconstruction. But the REMI-TranSight model will be more economical to acquire and run over the long term and has a longer list of clients.