Leng Chun Chen

Fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy for quantitative biological imaging

Fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM) is a method for measuring fluorophore lifetimes with microscopic spatial resolution, providing a useful tool for cell biologists to detect, visualize, and investigate structure and function of biological systems. In this chapter, we begin by introducing the basic theory of fluorescence lifetime, including the characteristics of fluorophore decay, followed by a discussion of factors affecting fluorescence lifetimes and the potential advantages of fluorescence lifetime as a source of image contrast. Experimental methods for creating lifetime maps, including both time- and frequency-domain experimental approaches, are then introduced. Then, FLIM data analysis methods are discussed, including rapid lifetime determination, multiexponential fitting, Laguerre polynomial fitting, and phasor plot analysis. After, data analysis methods are introduced that improve lifetime precision of FLIM maps based upon optimal virtual gating and total variation denoising. The chapter concludes by highlighting several recent FLIM applications for quantitative biological imaging, including Förster resonance energy transfer-FLIM, fluorescence correlation spectroscopy-FLIM, multispectral-FLIM, and multiphoton-FLIM.

The potential of label-free nonlinear optical molecular microscopy to non-invasively characterize the viability of engineered human tissue constructs

Nonlinear optical molecular imaging and quantitative analytic methods were developed to non-invasively assess the viability of tissue-engineered constructs manufactured from primary human cells. Label-free optical measures of local tissue structure and biochemistry characterized morphologic and functional differences between controls and stressed constructs. Rigorous statistical analysis accounted for variability between human patients. Fluorescence intensity-based spatial assessment and metabolic sensing differentiated controls from thermally-stressed and from metabolically-stressed constructs. Fluorescence lifetime-based sensing differentiated controls from thermally-stressed constructs. Unlike traditional histological (found to be generally reliable, but destructive) and biochemical (non-invasive, but found to be unreliable) tissue analyses, label-free optical assessments had the advantages of being both non-invasive and reliable. Thus, such optical measures could serve as reliable manufacturing release criteria for cell-based tissue-engineered constructs prior to human implantation, thereby addressing a critical regulatory need in regenerative medicine.

Photon-tissue interaction model enables quantitative optical analysis of human pancreatic tissues

A photon-tissue interaction (PTI) model was developed and employed to analyze 96 pairs of reflectance and fluorescence spectra from freshly excised human pancreatic tissues. For each pair of spectra, the PTI model extracted a cellular nuclear size parameter from the measured reflectance, and the relative contributions of extracellular and intracellular fluorophores to the intrinsic fluorescence. The results suggest that reflectance and fluorescence spectroscopies have the potential to quantitatively distinguish among pancreatic tissue types, including normal pancreatic tissue, pancreatitis, and pancreatic adenocarcinoma.

Nonlinear optical molecular imaging enables metabolic redox sensing in tissue-engineered constructs

Tissue-engineered constructs require noninvasive monitoring of cellular viability prior to implantation. In a preclinical study on human Ex Vivo Produced Oral Mucosa Equivalent (EVPOME) constructs, nonlinear optical molecular imaging was employed to extract morphological and functional information from intact constructs. Multiphoton excitation fluorescence images were acquired using endogenous fluorescence from cellular nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate [NAD(P)H] and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD). The images were analyzed to report quantitatively on tissue structure and metabolism (redox ratio). Both thickness variations over time and cell distribution variations with depth were identified, while changes in redox were quantified. Our results show that nonlinear optical molecular imaging has the potential to visualize and quantitatively monitor the growth and viability of a tissue-engineered construct over time.

Fluorescence wavelength-time matrix acquisition for biomedical tissue diagnostics

A specialized transient digitizer system was developed for spectroscopic collection of fluorescence wavelength-time matrices (WTMs) from biological tissues. The system is compact, utilizes fiber optic probes for clinical compatibility, and offers rapid collection of high signal-to-noise ratio (>100) time- and wavelength- resolved fluorescence. The system is compatible with excitation sources operating in excess of 25 kHz. Wavelength-resolved measurement range is 300-800 nm with ≥ 0.01 nm steps. Time-resolved measurement depth is 128 ns with fixed 0.2 ns steps. The information-rich WTM data provides comprehensive fluorescence sensing capabilities, as demonstrated on tissue simulating phantoms. Extracting wavelength-resolved fluorophore lifetimes illustrates the potential of using the technology to resolve exogenous or endogenous fluorophore contributions in tissue samples in a clinical setting for tissue diagnostics and monitoring.

Fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM) studies of living primary human cells for applications in tissue regeneration

Fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM) was employed to noninvasively characterize metabolic function in primary human oral keratinocytes used to develop functional engineered tissues. Living cells were compared under control culture conditions and systematic variations to investigate cellular function and viability. Nonlinear optical microscopy via two-photon excitation was employed to image cellular metabolic biomarkers NAD(P)H and FAD with thin optical sectioning and minimal out-of-focus fluorophore photobleaching. Novel post-processing FLIM algorithms were developed and tested. Results suggest that FLIM may provide useful information about live cell function and viability.

Mesh-based Monte Carlo code for fluorescence modeling in complex tissues with irregular boundaries

There is a growing need for the development of computational models that can account for complex tissue morphology in simulations of photon propagation. We describe the development and validation of a user-friendly, MATLAB-based Monte Carlo code that uses analytically-defined surface meshes to model heterogeneous tissue geometry. The code can use information from non-linear optical microscopy images to discriminate the fluorescence photons (from endogenous or exogenous fluorophores) detected from different layers of complex turbid media. We present a specific application of modeling a layered human tissue-engineered construct (Ex Vivo Produced Oral Mucosa Equivalent, EVPOME) designed for use in repair of oral tissue following surgery. Second-harmonic generation microscopic imaging of an EVPOME construct (oral keratinocytes atop a scaffold coated with human type IV collagen) was employed to determine an approximate analytical expression for the complex shape of the interface between the two layers. This expression can then be inserted into the code to correct the simulated fluorescence for the effect of the irregular tissue geometry.

Label-free multiphoton fluorescence imaging monitors metabolism in living primary human cells used for tissue engineering

Fluorescence redox imaging was employed to monitor the metabolic activity of primary human oral keratinocytes prior to the development of tissue-engineered constructs. Keratinocytes with controlled culture conditions were treated with varying levels of chemical stimuli, resulting in differing cellular morphology, growth rate, and metabolic activity. Fluorescence images of keratinocytes were noninvasively acquired from endogenous intracellular metabolic fluorophores NAD(P)H and FAD. A redox ratio quantitatively analyzed each pair of images, showing that fluorescence redox imaging may be a novel technique to characterize live cell viability

Optical spectroscopy for quantitative sensing in human pancreatic tissues

Pancreatic adenocarcinoma has a five-year survival rate of only 6%, largely because current diagnostic methods cannot reliably detect the disease in its early stages. Reflectance and fluorescence spectroscopies have the potential to provide quantitative, minimally-invasive means of distinguishing pancreatic adenocarcinoma from normal pancreatic tissue and chronic pancreatitis. The first collection of wavelength-resolved reflectance and fluorescence spectra and time-resolved fluorescence decay curves from human pancreatic tissues was acquired with clinically-compatible instrumentation. Mathematical models of reflectance and fluorescence extracted parameters related to tissue morphology and biochemistry that were statistically significant for distinguishing between pancreatic tissue types. These results suggest that optical spectroscopy has the potential to detect pancreatic disease in a clinical setting.

Assessment of post-implantation integration of engineered tissues using fluorescence lifetime spectroscopy

Clinical translation of engineered tissue constructs requires noninvasive methods to assess construct health and viability after implantation in patients. However, current practices to monitor post-implantation construct integration are either qualitative (visual assessment) or destructive (tissue histology). As label-free fluorescence lifetime sensing can noninvasively characterize pre-implantation construct viability, we employed a handheld fluorescence lifetime spectroscopy probe to quantitatively and noninvasively assess tissue constructs that were implanted in a murine model. We designed the system to be suitable for intravital measurements: portability, localization with precise maneuverability, and rapid data acquisition. Our model tissue constructs were manufactured from primary human cells to simulate patient variability and were stressed to create a range of health states. Secreted amounts of three cytokines that relate to cellular viability were measured in vitro to assess pre-implantation construct health. In vivo optical sensing assessed tissue integration of constructs at one-week and three-weeks post-implantation. At one-week post-implantation, optical parameters correlated with in vitro pre-implantation secretion levels of all three cytokines (p < 0.05). This relationship was no longer seen at three-weeks post-implantation, suggesting comparable tissue integration independent of preimplantation health. Histology confirmed re-epithelialization of these constructs independent of pre-implantation health state, supporting the lack of a correlation. These results suggest that clinical optical diagnostic tools based on label-free fluorescence lifetime sensing of endogenous tissue fluorophores could noninvasively monitor post-implantation integration of engineered tissues.