Leni Franken

Towards Integrative Religious Education in Belgium and Flanders: Challenges and Opportunities.

This article describes the way in which religious education (RE) has been organised in Flanders and Belgium, and gives attention to the problems and challenges that arise these days. We argue that the Schoolpact of 1958 which implies separate RE in different religions in public schools needs a revision. Therefore, we propose an alternative system, within the boundaries of the Belgian constitution that makes room for integrative RE as a new compulsory school subject in all schools.

The Future of Religious Education on the Flemish School Curriculum: A Plea for Integrative Religious Education for All

Abstract After an elaboration of the paradigm shift concerning religious education in Europe, we will give a critical presentation of the Belgian and Flemish system of religious education. The article continues with a discussion of diverse proposals to change the religious education system in Flanders, and concludes that the introduction of an independent, nondenominational, and obligatory subject about religions, ethics, citizenship, and philosophy is the most promising option. In addition, denominational religious education can still be offered as an optional subject. This double system seems the best approach to cope with the educational challenges, the freedom of religion, and (religious) education in Flanders today.

Coping with diversity in Religious Education: an overview

Abstract As a result of secularisation and increasing religious diversity, several European nation have states adapted their policy with regard to the organisation of Religious Education (RE) (or its equivalent) in state schools (schools funded and established by the state). In this article, different strategies will be outlined and evaluated: (1) the shift from confessional/catechetical to semi-confessional RE; (2) the possibility of exemption; (3) the organisation of an alternative, non-confessional, subject; (4) the expansion of RE subjects (multi-religious RE); (5) the shift from confessional to non-confessional RE; (6) the integration of information about religions in other school subjects. Based on a human rights perspective, the author argues why some of these strategies are preferable to others.

Religious and citizenship education in Belgium/Flanders: Suggestions for the future

In Belgium (Flanders), citizenship education is one of the cross-curricular achievements, but it is not scheduled as a separate school subject. Alternatively, citizenship education is integrated in diverse school subjects and particularly in the religious education classes. However, with this didactical approach, two problems arise. First, attention to liberal, democratic values is not always given in a sufficient, convincing way and is often dependent on the teacher staff’s efforts and goodwill. Second – and more important –, religious education in Belgium is organized by the independent religious instances of the recognized religions and not by the state. As a result, religious education teachers are often responsible for citizenship education, without supervision of the state. Not surprisingly, the aims of citizenship education are not always reached and Flanders scores below the European average with regard to citizenship education. In order to improve this situation, this article recommends a new, obligatory, non-confessional subject about (and not into) religion, where attention is given to religious diversity, ethics, philosophy and citizenship education. For pragmatic reasons, an immediate introduction of this subject would be impossible, but a gradual and profound change is recommended.

Islamic Education in Belgium: Past, Present, and Future

Abstract This article focuses on Islamic education in Belgium. First, attention is given to the organization of Islamic classes in state schools, where some important problems occur, such as the lack of appropriate teachers and inspectors, the mono-confessional content of the curricula, and the absence of state control. Next, the content of religious education (RE) classes in Catholic schools, which are also attended by many Muslims, will be addressed. Finally, the author argues that a shift within the current RE classes is not sufficient today. Based on autonomy-based, epistemological, and societal arguments, the author proposes a shift from confessional to non-confessional RE.

The freedom of religion and the freedom of education in twenty-first-century Belgium: a critical approach

In spite of recent tendencies of secularisation and religious pluralism, most Belgian schools are Catholic schools, where Roman Catholic religious education is a compulsory subject. As we will argue, this can lead to a de facto undermining of the freedom of religion and education and a shift in the system is therefore required. In the long term, the number of Catholic schools should be in proportion with the number of students/parents choosing these schools. In the short term, however, this strategy is not recommended and for pragmatic reasons, we propose a system in which religious education in substantially subsidised faith-based schools is no longer compulsory. We will argue that such a system does not lead to an infringement of the (internal) freedom of religion of faith-based institutions and that it will guarantee more educational and religious freedom than the current system does.

Neutrality and impartiality in RE: an impossible aim?

From confessional to nonconfessional Over recent decades, there has been a shift in several western nations from confessional to non-confessional religious education. This ‘paradigm shift’ (Franken and Loobuyck 2011) is the result of a changed religious landscape: due to immigration, individualisation and secularisation, the religious landscape in Western Europe (and in several other parts of the world) changed substantively. Accordingly, the aims of religious education changed as well: for a long time, the main aim of religious education in Europe (and elsewhere) was to respond to parents’ wishes to educate their children in their own denominational (Christian) tradition. Today, however, the aims of religious education are formulated in a more open and pluralistic way and accordingly, religious education classes have been deconfessionalised in several western nations (e.g. Sweden, Norway, Denmark, and in fully state funded schools in England and Wales, and Scotland) or regions (e.g. Brandenburg; most Swiss cantons; Québec). This deconfessionalisation did, however, not go smoothly, and in Norway and Québec, this shift has even led to a number of court cases (Folgerø v. Norway [2007]; SL v. Commission scolaire des Chênes v. Québec [2012]; Loyola High school v. Québec [2015]), in which the impartial or neutral character of non-confessional religious education, and its relation to the freedom of conscience and religion, has been discussed extensively. In Folgerø, the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) argued that it is possible to make non-confessional religious education obligatory for all students, but only when there is no indoctrination and when the subject is taught ‘in an objective, critical and pluralistic manner’. Similarly, the Canadian Supreme Court pointed at ‘the objective presentation of various religions’ as a condition for the compulsory character of religious education. The meaning and scope of this objectivity is, however, not clear: does it imply a mere phenomenological or scientific approach to religion (education about religion)? Or is it, within a context of objectivity, also possible to learn from religion? And if impartiality is required, is this attitude only required as a professional stance for teachers, or should students also be ‘neutral’ in the classroom?

Liberal Neutrality and State Support for Religion

Is state support for religion compatible with autonomy-based liberalism and its neutrality constraint? This is the core question of this chapter, in which it will be argued that religion is, in contemporary liberal societies, a perfectionist good. Accordingly, state support is, as a general principle not required by justice. Nonetheless, a policy of support can sometimes be allowed in order to guarantee equal access to autonomy, but only if certain criteria are fulfilled.

Islamic religious education in Belgian state schools: a post-secular perspective

Abstract Based on Habermas’ normative theory of religion in post-secular society, this article elaborates on the organisation of Islamic religious education (RE) in state schools. Hereto, a brief sketch of the Habermasian concepts of reflexive religion and complementary learning processes will be given. Subsequently, the author addresses the role of RE in post-secular society and applies these Habermasian concepts to confessional RE, with particular attention to Islamic RE in Belgium, where this subject is included as an optional subject in the state school curriculum since 1975, but where it is also criticised today, in particular with regard to content, teacher-training, textbooks, and inspection. These deficiencies will lead us to one of the main problems of Islamic RE and of confessional RE in general: the absence of state control. Based on Habermas’ ideas, the author concludes that it is up to the state to elucidate under which conditions confessional RE can be part of the regular curriculum, and to facilitate these conditions, by funding and co-organising teacher training, reviewing curricula and textbooks, formulating a ‘core curriculum’ and controlling teachers, for example. If these conditions have not been met, confessional RE should not be a part of the regular curriculum in a liberal state.

Deconfessionalising RE in Québec and Flanders: a comparative study

Abstract Inspired by the comparative method for RE as outlined by Bråten, this article elaborates on some similarities and differences between the present RE system in Flanders (Belgium) and the past RE system in Québec (Canada). After a brief outline of the societal level, the focus will be on the institutional level, where international, national and sub-national legislation will be examined. In addition, attention will be given to informal processes on the societal sub-national level, and especially to the debates with regard to the deconfessionalisation of RE in Flanders on one hand, and the debates on this issue in Québec on the other. This comparison will not only reveal important similarities, but also significant differences. Interestingly, it seems to be the case that especially these differences, and the particularities of the Flemish educational system, make the deconfessionalisation in Flanders even more complicated and difficult – but therefore not less urgent – than in Québec.