Lennart J. Lundqvist

Capacity-building or social construction? Explaining Sweden’s shift towards ecological modernisation

Abstract How can the change from ‘traditional environmental policy’ towards ‘ecological modernisation’, visible in many countries, be explained? After establishing the elements of ‘ecological modernisation’ found in recent literature, this article first assesses whether the recent and massive environmental policy changes in Sweden fit these characteristics. In the next step, two models of environmental policy change (Janicke’s ‘environmental capacity-building’ and Hajer’s ‘argumentative approach’) are applied to the Swedish case in order to evaluate their explanatory power. Neither of the models seems to provide a fully adequate explanation of the Swedish shift towards ecological modernisation. Janicke’s model directs our attention to structural and institutional factors that establish the context, but it does not provide links between actors and contexts that account for the dynamics and specific direction of change. Hajer puts the focus on dynamics of change, but is less explicit on the importance of the structural positions and power resources of actors engaging in the process of change. The challenge, then, is to find ways of combining structural-institutional models of environmental capacity-building and social constructivist discourse analysis into a more satisfactorily and fully covering theory of environmental policy change.

Implementation from Above: The Ecology of Power in Sweden's Environmental Governance

This paper seeks to assess the tenability of Rhodes’ view of the “new governance” as “governing without government,” as well as the validity of Pierre and Peters’ assertions that the state is still at the center of structures and processes of governance. The case used for analysis is Sweden’s ecological modernization and the implementation of Local Investment Programs for Sustainable Development. This case provides a crucial test of the contradictory propositions of Rhodes and Pierre and Peters. Contrary to Rhodes’ assertions, central government held the initiative in the process of implementing Sweden’s ecological modernization. In line with the arguments of Pierre and Peters, central government created new structures and processes of governance to keep its initiative over constitutionally independent expert agencies and municipal governments—exactly those actors that, in Rhodes’ view, could make central governmental steering well nigh impossible. As the paper illustrates, what government gains in direct control over the process, it may well lose in terms of the end results. The case of “new governance” analyzed here thus directs attention to the critical interplay between structure, process, and end results, and to government’s role in governance.

Privatization: Towards a Concept for Comparative Policy Analysis

Affected by the ideological symbolism and political controversy surrounding privatization, much of the work on this subject is marred by definitional uncertainty; what should be included in the concept? To get away from this, and to prepare the ground for meaningful comparative analysis of the phenomenon, I propose both a definition and a taxonomy. I argue that it is the active and conscious transfer of reponsibility from the public to the private realm that should form the core of the concept. Furthermore, I argue that neither the principles for, nor the level of, provision of goods and services should be included in the definition. Finally, I propose that the taxonomy should be based on the public/private dichotomy of responsibility allocation included in the definition, as well as on three main activities in goods and services production which the government could privatize; regulation, financing, and production.

Corporatist implementation and legitimacy: The case of privatisation in Swedish public housing

Abstract ‘Corporatist implementation’ plays an important role throughout the Swedish rental sector. It is based on close ideological affiliations and adherence to common policy objectives among the Social Democratic government and the organised interests in the public rental sector. In this article, I describe how it works in rent policy as well in the programme for widened tenant influence over housing management and renewal In the mid‐1980s, however, the public landlord association invited a private company to manage and renew problem estates in public housing. The methods used by that company are examined and found to be in conflict with the objectives hitherto shared by Social Democratic governments and the ‘recognised’ interests in the public rental sector. I then go on to discuss the implications for the legitimacy of the existing ‘corporatist implementation’ structure, suggesting that a ‘de‐legitimisation’ of that structure would prove too costly and difficult for government Once such a structure i...

Ecological citizenship: coming out ‘clean’ without turning ‘green’?

Proponents of the cosmopolitan view of ecological citizenship claim that in order to fulfil the moral obligations of global justice, citizens must undergo deep attitude shifts and adopt green civic virtues. To test this empirically, a typology of four major combinations of environmental attitudes and ecological practise is constructed and the extent to which these four citizen types are found in Sweden is assessed using data from nationwide annual surveys. Discovery of a large group of citizens whose practice is green ecological but who exhibit grey environmental attitudes leads to the conclusion that, contrary to the assertions of proponents of the cosmopolitan view, citizens can indeed come out ecologically clean without undergoing deep attitudinal shifts, without turning green.

'Greening the People's Home': The Formative Power of Sustainable Development Discourse in Swedish Housing

This article analyses what it takes for a new discourse to acquire formative power all the way from the formulation of ideas to the institutionalisation of new practices. Starting from seemingly contradictory propositions in the literature on housing and environmental policy discourses, and combining these with a contextual rational action approach, the empirical analysis traces the fate of the new sustainable development discourse introduced across many policy sectors in Sweden after 1996, including housing. It is found that who introduces new discursive ideas is important for their formative power; discourse introductions by government induce shifts in thoughts and talk across sectors. How this is done is even more important; metaphors and story lines of already institutionalised discourses strengthen formative power. Furthermore, using distributive measures with some strings attached is found to be an effective use of power resources to gain institutionalisation of the new discourse. However, it is found that institutionalised discourses at the local implementing level provide hindrances to formative power reaching all the way to new practices. This is furthermore accentuated by inherent contradictions in the Swedish discourse, as it built on equalising sustainable development with ecological modernisation.

Rolling stones for the resurrection of policy as the focus of comparative housing research

In this essay, I try to roll some stones away which block the resurrection of policy as a proper focus for comparative housing research. To this end, I propose a classification of policy content based on processes common to all systems of housing provision. I also outline an analytical framework linking important contextual factors to that content, and allowing for the elaboration of theories concerning those linkages. The framework furthermore links policy to consequences in housing as well as in other parts of society. Finally, I discuss how policy‐focussed housing studies should address issues in evaluative research on housing.

Planning for Climate Change Adaptation in a Multi-level Context: The Gothenburg Metropolitan Area

Abstract Individual local governments are key players in Swedens strategy for climate adaptation but their authority does not match the scale of climate change and its impacts. Competences are divided among local, regional and national authorities. Climate adaptation thus requires cooperation, particularly in metropolitan regions. This raises issues of coordination, legitimacy and effectiveness of adaptation measures recommended in local Master Plans. The focus here is on how the 13 municipalities in the Gothenburg Metropolitan Area—expected to be the part of Sweden most affected by impacts of climate change—address and act upon issues of climate change adaptation within the framework of Swedens Planning and Building Act, which places responsibility for the “common interest” of climate adaptation with local governments. Analysing municipal Master Plans, as well as the comments on these plans from the regional County Administrative Board and from Göteborg Region Association of Local Authorities, the inter-municipal association charged with infrastructural planning, I identify patterns in terms of coordination, legitimacy and effectiveness of planning for climate change adaptation. Results are discussed in relation to propositions from recent research on planning for climate adaptation in multi-level contexts.

Local-to-Local Partnerships among Swedish Municipalities: Why and How Neighbours Join to Alleviate Resource Constraints

Networks are important institutional features in local community affairs. They function as information centres and bargaining structures in politics. Through networks, local political actors can furthermore build a reputation which becomes an asset — sometimes even a form of veto power — in the decision-making process (Knoke 1990: 133, 138-9). Elected municipal leaders hold central positions vis-a-vis important local groups and organizations, and are at the hub of important inter-organizational relationships in the community. From this central institutional position, they engage in strategic activities to establish contacts with, and to create networks among, the important holders and/or claimants to resources deemed necessary to fulfil political objectives. Politicians must particularly strive to establish such relations with individual and collective resource holders over whom they have limited political leverage. Networking can thus be seen as a strategy of using contacts to gain influence over structural factors in the local government’s environment, first and foremost in order to alleviate the eternal problem of scarcity and resource dependence (Pierre 1994: 163f). Looking at networking as a strategic activity implies that there is a dubious relationship between networks, networking, and cooperation.

Sweden's housing policy and the quest for tenure neutrality

The Swedish housing policy decision of 1974 is internationally unique in its specific quest to establish neutrality between housing tenures, not only in terms of costs, but also with regard to housing standard and household influence over housing management. After presenting the 1974 policy objectives, an interpretation of these goals is attempted in order to establish criteria for an evaluation of goal achievement. Then the present state of affairs for each of the three target areas is compared to the criteria. It is found that the record of achievement with respect to standards is mixed; while there is a visible and steady trend towards greater tenure diversity in single‐family housing production, the size variation is, if anything, diminishing in the multi‐family housing sector. As for household Influence, the self‐regulatory strategy involving tenants and public housing companies has increased collective tenant influence. Certain legislative measures have increased individual tenant influence over rep...