Leo A. Whiteside

The effects of axial rotational alignment of the femoral component on knee stability and patellar tracking in total knee arthroplasty demonstrated on autopsy specimens.

Four fresh-frozen anatomic knee specimens were tested for knee stability, patellar tracking, and patellofemoral contact points with the femoral component positioned in 5 degrees internal, 5 degrees external, or neutral axial rotational alignment of the femoral component referenced on the posterior femoral condyles. The externally rotated specimens had varus-valgus stability of the knee that was closest to the normal control. The internally rotated specimens shifted into valgus alignment with flexion. Patellar tracking also was closest to normal in the externally rotated specimens. Patellofemoral contact was more evenly distributed between the medial and lateral contact areas in the externally rotated specimens than in the internally rotated or in the neutral specimens. Internal rotation of the femoral component in the knee with perpendicular resection of the tibia causes undesirable changes in knee stability, patellar tracking, and patellofemoral contact points. Neutral positioning produces similar but less negative effects on knee stability and patellar kinematics. External rotation improves both patellar tracking and knee stability characteristics.

The anteroposterior axis for femoral rotational alignment in valgus total knee arthroplasty.

This study evaluated a technique using the anteroposterior axis of the distal femur, rather than the transepicondylar or posterior femoral condylar axis, to establish rotational alignment of the femoral component in valgus knees. The anteroposterior axis of the distal femur was defined by a line through the deepest part of the patellar groove anteriorly and the center of the intercondylar notch posteriorly. Total knee arthroplasty was done in 46 valgus knees between 1980 and 1986 using the posterior femoral condyles as landmarks for rotational alignment. From January 1986 through January 1992 total knee arthroplasty was done in 107 valgus knees using the anteroposterior axis for rotational alignment of the femoral component In the group of knees using the posterior condylar axis, medial tibial tubercle transfer was needed intra-operatively in 8 knees to prevent lateral dislocation of the patella. In the first 2 postoperative years, 4 knees had recurrent patellar dislocation or subluxation that required surgical correction. In the group of knees using the anteroposterior axis, patellar tracking problems that required realignment were significantly reduced. One knee required medial tibial tubercle transfer to correct a Q angle >20°. In the remaining knees, the Q angle was <10°, and patellar tracking was acceptable. Two years after surgery, no knees had patellar instability.

Femoral rotational alignment, based on the anteroposterior axis, in total knee arthroplasty in a valgus knee. A technical note.

The landmarks used to achieve correct rotational alignment of the femoral component in total knee arthroplasty may be indistinguishable or unreliable in the distal architecture of a valgus knee. Five observers identified the anteroposterior axis, the posterior condylar axis, and the transepicondylar axis in thirty cadaveric femora to determine the reliability of the use of each axis in the operative setting. In addition, radiographs were made of the distal aspect of each femur, the axes were constructed, and the angles were measured and compared with the visual measurements made by the observers. A line drawn perpendicular to the anteroposterior axis consistently approximated 4 degrees of external rotation relative to the posterior condylar surfaces. The transepicondylar axis was more difficult to define and was not as accurate. The radiographic results were similar to the visual results, but the standard deviations for the former were less than those for the latter. The anteroposterior axis appears to be a reliable landmark for rotational alignment of the femoral component in a valgus knee.

Knee motions during maximum flexion in fixed and mobile-bearing arthroplasties.

Full flexion is a critical performance requirement for patients in Asia and the Middle East, and increasingly for patients in Europe and North America who have total knee arthroplasty. There has been considerable work characterizing maximum flexion in terms of clinical, surgical, and preoperative factors, but less in vivo experimental work after rehabilitation. The purpose of the current investigation was to determine whether anteroposterior tibiofemoral translation influenced maximum weightbearing knee flexion in patients with good or excellent clinical and functional outcomes. One hundred twenty-one knees in 93 subjects, including 16 different articular surface designs, were studied using fluoroscopy and shape matching to determine knee kinematics in a weightbearing deep flexion activity. A relatively posterior position of the femur on the tibia was significantly correlated with greater maximum knee flexion. Posterior-stabilized arthroplasties had significantly more posterior femoral position and maximum flexion than posterior cruciate-retaining fixed-bearing arthroplasties, which had more posterior femoral position and greater maximum flexion than mobile-bearing arthroplasties. Posterior bone-implant impingement was observed in 28% of knees. Tibiofemoral motions influence the mechanics of weightbearing deep flexion in well-functioning knee arthroplasties.

Exposure in difficult total knee arthroplasty using tibial tubercle osteotomy.

Exposure with an extended tibial tubercle and tibial crest osteotomy was done for 136 total knee arthroplasties from 1986 to 1994: There were 26 primary arthroplasties, 76 revision, 10 repeated revision, 19 infected, and 5 repeated revision for infection. Adequate exposure was achieved and further release of the quadriceps mechanism was not necessary. Two or 3 wires were passed through the lateral edge of the tibial tubercle and through the medial tibial cortex to reattach the bone fragment and patellar tendon. Mean range of motion in these cases at 2 years after surgery was 93.7° (range, 15°-140°). Two knees had extension lag, unchanged from their preoperative condition. Two tibial tubercles had partial proximal avulsion fracture, but did not separate widely. No evidence of nonunion occurred in the simple cases or in the infected cases in which repeat elevation of the tibial tubercle flap and quadriceps mechanism was done. Three wires were removed because of pain. Two tibial fractures occurred in a single patient with diabetic Charcot arthropathy, and in 1 with manipulation after open adhesiolysis. Quadriceps function was not compromised in any case. Knees with Charcot arthropathy may need prolonged protection from weight bearing. Special caution should be exercised when manipulation is done to improve knee flexibility.

Selective ligament release in total knee arthroplasty of the knee in valgus.

An approach to the valgus knee based on anatomic function of ligaments in flexion and extension consistently yields a knee that is balanced in flexion and extension when the implants have been positioned correctly. Two hundred thirty-one knees had a valgus deformity (range, 12 degrees-45 degrees) and were corrected with valgus alignment to 5 degrees by resecting the intact joint surfaces to match implant thickness. Femoral joint surfaces were aligned in 5 degrees valgus to the long axis of the femur and parallel to the epicondylar axis of the femur in flexion and extension. The tibial surfaces were aligned perpendicular to the long axis of the tibia. For knees that were tight in flexion and extension, the lateral collateral ligament and popliteus tendon were released. Those knees that remained tight only in extension had release of the iliotibial band. Posterior capsular release was done only when necessary for persistent lateral ligament tightness. Neither ligament advancement procedures nor varus or valgus stabilized implant systems were needed to achieve stability with this procedure. The knees with ligament releases all fell within a range of 4 degrees to 7 degrees mean varus and valgus laxity, and were not significantly different from one another. No cases of clinical instability occurred, and joint stability did not deteriorate with time.

The influence of joint line position on knee stability after condylar knee arthroplasty.

Using a special knee-testing device, ten knees obtained at autopsy were subjected to varus-valgus, anterior-posterior, and flexion-rotation analysis in the intact state and after total knee arthroplasty. The ten knees showed no significant change in stability after knee replacement when the joint line was maintained in its natural position. When the femoral component was repositioned 5 mm proximally and 5 mm anteriorly, a significant increase in laxity occurred during midflexion. When the joint line was shifted 5 mm distal and 5 mm posterior to its anatomic location, significant tightening occurred in midrange of motion. Coupled rotation of the tibia with knee flexion was decreased after surgery in all knees with no specific relationship to joint line position. Coupled rotation with varus-valgus testing, however, remained within the normal range through the first 30 degrees of flexion only when the joint line was restored to its normal anatomic position. Stability in condylar knee arthroplasty is in part dependent on position of the joint line. Surgical techniques that rely on restoring the flexion and extension gap without regard to joint line position may result in alteration of varus-valgus or anterior-posterior displacement in midrange flexion.

TIBIAL TUBERCLE OSTEOTOMY FOR EXPOSURE OF THE DIFFICULT TOTAL KNEE ARTHROPLASTY

Tibial tubercle osteotomy provides a safe and reliable means of extensile exposure of the knee. A technique was developed using a long osteoperiosteal segment including the tibial tubercle and upper tibial crest leaving lateral muscular attachments intact to this bone fragment. The bone fragment was reattached to its bed with two cobalt-chromium wires passed through the fragment and through the medial tibial cortex. The procedure was used in 71 knees to expose the joint for total knee arthroplasty, and the follow-up period was one to five years. All healed uneventfully, and no significant complications occurred. Mean postoperative flexion was 97 degrees. No extension lag occurred, and mean flexion contracture was 2.5 degrees. Excellent exposure can be achieved by means of a viable bone flap below the knee. Early rehabilitation and weight bearing can be done with low potential for complications.

Functional Medial Ligament Balancing in Total Knee Arthroplasty

Function of the anterior and posterior oblique portions of the medial collateral ligament and the posterior capsule in flexion and extension was evaluated in eight knee specimens after posterior cruciate retaining total knee arthroplasty. The posterior oblique portion of the medial collateral ligament was released subperiosteally in four specimens, and the anterior portion was released in four specimens. The medial posterior capsule was released in each group, then the remaining portion of the medial collateral ligament was released. Release of the posterior oblique portion produced moderate laxity at full extension and at 30° flexion, and posterior capsule release produced additional laxity in full extension. Release of the anterior portion produced major laxity at 60° and 90° flexion. Complete medial collateral ligament release increased laxity significantly in both groups in flexion and extension. This rationale was tested in a clinical study of 82 knees (76 patients) in which 62 (76%) required medial collateral ligament release to correct varus deformity during posterior cruciate retaining total knee arthroplasty. Twenty-two knees (35.5%) were tight medially in extension only, and were corrected by releasing the posterior oblique portion. Thirty-one knees (50%) were tight medially in flexion only, and were corrected by releasing the anterior portion. Nine knees (14.5%) were tight medially in flexion and extension and required complete medial collateral ligament release, but three knees (4.8%) remained tight in extension and required medial posterior capsule release to correct flexion contracture and medial ligament contracture. Seventeen (27%) had partial posterior cruciate ligament release to correct excessive rollback of the femoral component on the tibial surface.

Nutritional Pathways of the Intervertebral Disc: An Experimental Study Using Hydrogen Washout Technique

The pathways of material transfer to the intervertebral disc were studied in adult dogs by measuring diffusion of hydrogen molecules in the nucleus pulposus before and after disruption of the route through the annulus fibrosus and before and after disruption of the end-plate route. The disruption of the end-plate route, even if the separation of the bone-disc interfaces was only in the central two-thirds of one side, caused significantly greater decrease in the rate of hydrogen washout than the disruption of the annulus route. Hitologically, the bone-cartilage interface was frequently perforated by marrow cavity and vascular buds. These findings suggest that the end-plate route is a major pathway for material transfer to the intervertebral disc.