Leonidas C. Leonidou

Firm-level export performance assessment: Review, evaluation, and development

Export performance is one of the most widely researched but least understood and most contentious areas of international marketing. To some extent, this problem can be ascribed to difficulties in conceptualizing, operationalizing, and measuring the export performance construct, often leading to inconsistent and conflicting results. This study reviews and evaluates more than 100 articles of pertinent empirical studies to assess and critique export performance measurements. Based on gaps identified in this evluation, guidelines for export performance measure development are advanced, suggesting, however, a contingency approach in their application. Several conclusions and implications for export strategy and future research are derived from this analysis.

Marketing strategy determinants of export performance: a meta-analysis

Abstract Identifying the marketing strategy elements that influence export performance has been the subject of sizeable empirical research. However, the findings reported in the literature are characterized by fragmentation and diversity, limiting theory development, and improvement of management practice in the field. This article aims to synthesize extant knowledge on the subject based on a meta-analysis of empirical studies on the export marketing strategy–performance relationship. The assessment reveals that: (a) although many marketing strategy variables demonstrate positive effects on overall export performance, the relationship is not always significant; (b) of the export performance measures examined in various studies, stronger effects are observed in relation to export proportion of sales; and (c) time of study, geographic focus, and product type had a limited impact on the effect of marketing strategy elements on export performance. Implications for export management and future research are discussed.

An Analysis of the Barriers Hindering Small Business Export Development

Notwithstanding the benefits derived from exporting in an increasingly globalized marketplace, for many smaller‐sized manufacturers the internationalization path is beset by numerous obstacles. This article offers a comprehensive analysis of 39 export barriers extracted from a systematic review of 32 empirical studies conducted on the subject. These have been classified into internal (incorporating informational, functional, and marketing) and external (comprising procedural, governmental, task, and environmental) barriers. The impact of export barriers is shown to be situation‐specific, largely depending on the idiosyncratic managerial, organizational, and environmental background of the firm. However, certain barriers, such as those relating to information inefficiencies, price competitiveness, foreign customer habits, and politicoeconomic hurdles, seem to have a systematically strong obstructing effect on export behavior. Several conclusions and implications for small business managers, public policymakers, business educators, and exporting researchers are derived.

Standardization versus adaptation of international marketing strategy: an integrative assessment of the empirical research

Despite 40 years of debate on international marketing strategy standardization vs adaptation, extant empirical research is too fragmented to yield clear insights. Based on an integrative analysis of 36 studies centering around strategy standardization/adaptation, its antecedents, and performance outcomes, this stream of research was found to be characterized by non-significant, contradictory, and, to some extent, confusing findings attributable to inappropriate conceptualizations, inadequate research designs, and weak analytical techniques. The central conclusion that stems from this analysis is that the decision whether to standardize or adapt the marketing strategy to achieve superior business performance will largely depend on the set of circumstances that a firm is confronted by within a particular foreign market at a specific period of time.

Export barriers: non‐exporters′ perceptions

Provides an empirical assessment of non‐exporters′ perceptions on the factors that hinder the initiation of export activities. The research investigation, which was conducted among a representative random sample of 112 Cypriot manufacturing concerns, revealed that the increasing competitive pressures in the world market constituted the most severe impediment to the export initiation process. A number of organizational determinants exhibited a discriminating effect on certain export barriers. Specifically, there was a tendency by firms with no prior export experience, of small size and with relatively few years in business, to overstress some of the export barriers addressed. However, the type of goods manufactured did not exhibit any differentiating impact. An attempted classification of the export barriers according to internal/external and domestic/foreign typologies revealed no significant differences in the inhibiting impact of the resulting groups.

An analytical review of the factors stimulating smaller firms to export

Purpose – Although exporting can offer many benefits to smaller manufacturers, a large number of these firms refrain from export operations as a result of insufficient stimulation. This paper seeks to critically analyse and creatively synthesise the reasons that may stimulate a smaller firm to export, based on a review of 32 empirical studies conducted in various parts of the world during the period 1974‐2005.Design/methodology/approach – A total of 40 export stimuli were systematically identified from the extant empirical literature, which, for analytical purposes, were divided into internal and external, as well as proactive and reactive. Within each study, stimuli were ranked in terms of their importance, frequency, or intensity, and the aggregate impact of each stimulus in all studies under review was evaluated.Findings – The review revealed that export stimulation stems from a variety of factors, and may vary according to time, spatial, and industry contexts. Irrespective of contextual factors, there...

Export stimulation research: Review, evaluation and integration

This paper deals with a review, evaluation and integration of available research on the factors stimulating initiation and subsequent development and sustainment of export operations. The review focused on 30 studies conducted mainly in North American and European countries. The investigation revealed that research on the subject is still at the identification and conceptualization stage, due to incomplete conceptual foundations, unsophisticated methodologies and inconsistent research findings. An aggregate analysis of the available empirical data revealed that unsolicited orders from foreign customers exhibited the highest stimulating effect. The nature of export stimulation was also found to be affected by a number of methodological parameters. A classification of the stimuli by combining the internal/external and proactive/reactive typologies revealed more or less the same stimulating impact amongst the resulting groups.

Antecedents and outcomes of consumer environmentally friendly attitudes and behaviour

Abstract With the intensification of problems relating to the environment, a growing number of consumers are becoming more ecologically conscious in their preferences and purchases of goods. This paper presents the results of a study conducted among 500 Cypriot consumers, focusing on the factors that shape consumer environmental attitudes and behaviour, as well as on the resulting outcomes. The findings confirmed that both the inward and outward environmental attitudes of a consumer are positively influenced by his/her degree of collectivism, long-term orientation, political involvement, deontology, and law obedience, but have no connection with liberalism. The adoption of an inward environmental attitude was also found to be conducive to green purchasing behaviour that ultimately leads to high product satisfaction. On the other hand, an outward environmental attitude facilitates the adoption of a general environmental behaviour, which is responsible for greater satisfaction with life. The findings of the study have important implications for shaping effective company offerings to consumers in target markets, as well as formulating appropriate policies at the governmental level to enhance environmental sensitivity among citizens.

Research into environmental marketing/management: a bibliographic analysis

Purpose – This study seeks to identify, synthesize, and evaluate extant research on environmental marketing and management, with the ultimate aim of unveiling trends in this field. Specifically, it aims to focus on: the characteristics of authors and manuscripts written on the subject; the methodological aspects of empirical studies, in terms of design, scope and methodology; and the thematic areas tackled, as well as the specific issues raised within each area.Design/methodology/approach – Relevant articles were identified using both electronic and manual bibliographic search methods. Altogether, 530 articles were identified in 119 academic journals published during the period 1969‐2008. Each article was content‐analyzed along six major dimensions, namely authorship profile, manuscript characteristics, research design, scope of research, research methodology, and topical area.Findings – Overall, it was revealed that this body of research has undergone a serious transformation, moving from an early stage ...

Behavioural aspects of international buyer‐seller relationships: their association with export involvement

This article reports the findings of a study investigating the association of the atmosphere governing buyer‐seller relationships in international markets with the company’s involvement in export business. Based on a sample of 100 export manufacturers from Cyprus, the study first classifies firms in three homogeneous groups using 15 clustering criteria of export involvement. It then identifies the underlying dimensions of ten behavioural factors describing the working relationship between exporters and their import customers. Finally, it traces differences in the relationship atmosphere according to the company’s involvement in export markets. Overall, the study revealed that the more a firm is involved in exporting, the more likely its relationships with overseas customers are to be characterized by greater resource and personnel commitment, more communication sufficiency, higher levels of cooperation, substantial partnership dependence, excessive levels of trust, and stronger feelings of satisfaction with both financial and behavioural performance. Certain theoretical and practical implications are derived from the study findings, as well as directions for further research.