Leontien M. van der Knaap

Risk of Revictimization of Intimate Partner Violence: The Role of Attachment, Anger and Violent Behavior of the Victim

Victims of intimate partner violence (IPV) are known to be at high risk for revictimization. Yet, to date, the mechanisms explaining the link between victimization and revictimization of IPV have not been extensively studied. In the present prospective study involving 74 female help-seeking victims of IPV, we investigated victim-related psychological mechanisms that may underlie this link. With this study, we aim to contribute to the development of theory addressing these psychological mechanisms and their role in explaining risk for IPV revictimization. Hypotheses regarding possibly relevant psychological mechanisms were derived from two conflicting approaches to IPV: the gender perspective, and the mutual IPV perspective. Results lend further support to the mutual IPV perspective, since our final prediction model indicates that victim-perpetrated IPV is an important risk factor for physical and psychological IPV revictimization. An avoidant attachment style shows to be a strong predictor as well, in particular for victims with high and average anger levels. Findings provide clear indications for risk assessment and treatment of IPV victims, and moreover offer opportunities to empower these victims in order to prevent future violence.

Victims' influence on intimate partner violence revictimization : A systematic review of prospective evidence

Foa, Cascardi, Zoellner and Feeny developed two models of women’s influence on intimate partner violence (IPV), which integrate victim-related variables associated with the cessation or continuation of partner violence (i.e., repeat IPV). One of the models focuses on psychological factors while the other centers on environmental factors. Central to both models are three key factors: partner violence; psychological difficulties; and resilience. Despite the appeal of these models, empirical, prospective research that specifically tests these models appears to be lacking. This article describes a systematic review of the available literature that examines the prospective link between the three key factors of the models and the risk of IPV revictimization. A synthesis of 15 studies reveals that Foa et al.’s models of revictimization are partly supported by prior prospective research. It is beyond doubt that the key factor partner violence (involving the severity and frequency of prior IPV) is a strong predictor for IPV revictimization; the evidence regarding victims’ psychological difficulties and resilience is more mixed. Findings are discussed in terms of implications for practice and research and might enable practitioners to help victims to take control of their situations and to contribute to their empowerment. The importance of future prospective research into dynamic, victim-related variables is emphasized, in order to further support Foa’s models of victims’ influence on IPV revictimization.

Reevaluating Interrater Reliability in Offender Risk Assessment

Offender risk and needs assessment, one of the pillars of the risk–need-responsivity model of offender rehabilitation, usually depends on raters assessing offender risk and needs. The few available studies of interrater reliability in offender risk assessment are, however, limited in the generalizability of their results. The present study examined interrater reliability in Dutch offender risk assessment by 38 raters who independently assessed 75 offenders. The results show substantial reliability (Tinsley and Weiss’s T value ≥ .61) for risk of reconviction and moderate (T value ≥ .41) to substantial reliability for offender needs, such as accommodation, finances, or education. These results are discussed in light of a recent British study on the interrater reliability of a comparable risk assessment instrument. The results from the present study show similar to better reliability, leading to the conclusion that greater external validity does not negatively influence interrater reliability results.

Assessing Perceived Ability to Cope With Trauma

Aim of the present study was to examine the construct validity of the trauma-related coping self-efficacy (CSE) scale. While assessing the psychometric properties of this 20-item scale among four different samples (514 victims of disaster, 1325 bereaved individuals, 512 victims of acute critical incidents, 169 severe burn victims), we found no measurement equivalence across groups. A shortened version was composed using only those items that were applicable to all types of potentially traumatic events (PTEs). In contrast to the CSE-20, the CSE-7 has a robust factor structure; factor structure and factor loadings were similar across study samples, indicating that it measured the same construct across different PTEs. These results offer strong support for cross-event construct validity of the CSE-7. Associations of the CSE-7 with posttraumatic stress symptoms showed the same pattern as with the CSE-20, indicating that the reduction in items did not diminish the scales’ power to predict posttraumatic stress.

Prevalence and nature of child sexual abuse in the Netherlands : Ethnic differences?

In most epidemiological prevalence studies of child sexual abuse, the role of ethnicity remains unclear. This study examined the prevalence and nature of child sexual abuse in four non-Western ethnic minority groups and compared them with a native Dutch group. A sample of 3,426 young adults (aged 18–25) completed a structured, online survey on experiences of child sexual abuse. A total of 42.9% (n = 1,469) participants reported at least one form of child sexual abuse victimization before the age of 18. Surinamese and Turkish respondents’ prevalence rates did not differ from the native Dutch youth. However, the Dutch Antillean respondents reported significantly higher rates of child sexual abuse on specific forms of abuse, whereas the Moroccan respondents reported lower rates compared with their native Dutch peers. With this study, we have more insight into the differences—however small they may be—between ethnic groups and native Dutch youth regarding child sexual abuse.

Making Men Out of Boys? Ethnic Differences in Juvenile Violent Offending and the Role of Gender Role Orientations

This study examines the association of gender role orientations to juvenile violent offending in a sample of nearly 500 Dutch and Moroccan-Dutch adolescent boys. While results from this study support the hypothesis that an ethnic minority background is associated with higher prevalence rates in serious violent offending, direct examination of the effects of ethnicity on serious violent offending demonstrated the influential role of gender role orientations in the prevalence rates of serious violent offending. Specifically, lower class boys and Moroccan-Dutch boys reported more conventional gender role attitudes than their counterparts. The results highlight the importance of considering the need to provide positive male role models who provide concrete information about how to behave, as source of support and guidance, but also to provide concrete information to boys regarding what is possible for them as members of specific social groups. The psychosocial need for affirmation, convention, and support may be an important consideration in addressing violent offending.

Ethnic differences in help-seeking behaviour following child sexual abuse: a multi-method study.

Abstract In Western societies, groups from a minority ethnic background are under-represented in formal mental health care. However, it is unknown if the minority ethnic victims of child sexual abuse differ from majority ethnic victims regarding their help-seeking behaviours. This study used a multi-method design to investigate the prevalence of (in) formal help-seeking after child sexual abuse and the influence of attitudes towards gender roles and sexuality on help-seeking among the Dutch minority ethnic and majority ethnic victims. We also examined differences in reasons not to seek help. Quantitative survey data on help-seeking patterns among 1496 child sexual abuse victims were collected. Four qualitative focus groups were conducted with professionals working in the field of child sexual abuse and minority ethnic groups to explore help-seeking behaviour. No significant differences between ethnicity emerged in help-seeking rates. However, respondents with more liberal gender attitudes were more likely to disclose than conservative respondents. Additionally, an interaction effect was observed between ethnicity and gender attitudes, indicating that, contrary to the main effect, young people of Moroccan and Turkish heritage with more liberal gender attitudes were less likely to disclose abuse. Reasons for not seeking help differed among groups. Focus group members emphasised mistrust towards counsellors and perceptions that inhibit minority ethnic youth from seeking help.

The predictive value of trauma-related coping self-efficacy for posttraumatic stress symptoms: Differences between treatment-seeking and non-treatment-seeking victims.

OBJECTIVE To assess and compare the (independent) predictive value of trauma-related coping self-efficacy (CSE) for posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) among a treatment sample and a comparison group of nontreatment seeking victims. METHOD Both the treatment (N = 54) and comparison group (N = 144) were exposed to potentially traumatic events (PTEs), experienced a heightened level of PTSS (IES > = 19), and were matched on work status and time between PTE and first measurement (T1). Respondents completed both baseline (T1) and follow-up measures (T2) approximately 8 months after T1. RESULTS Multiple regression analyses among the treatment sample showed that neither PTSS at T1 (start of treatment) nor CSE levels at T1 predicted PTSS at T2 among the treatment group. Among the comparison group, higher CSE levels at T1 and younger age were significantly associated with lower PTSS at T2. In both the treatment group and the comparison group PTSS levels were significantly lower at T2 than at T1. As expected, treatment seeking victims have higher PTSS and lower CSE levels than nontreatment seeking victims. CONCLUSIONS Pretreatment CSE did not affect recovery during treatment: higher pretreatment CSE perceptions do not give treated individuals an advantage while CSE is predictive of PTSS among untreated victims.

A Quantitative Study on Gender Differences in Disclosing Child Sexual Abuse and Reasons for Nondisclosure

Despite the available literature on disclosure of child sexual abuse (CSA), little is known about how gender affects disclosure. This article aims to quantitatively examine whether gender differences exist in formal (to legal or child protection authorities) and informal (to a family member or friend) disclosure of CSA and, if so, to assess whether this relation is associated with abuse characteristics and attitudes toward gender roles. The study also aimed to examine whether gender differences exist in reasons not to disclose CSA. Data of a sample of 586 participants, who reported to have experienced CSA committed by a single person, have been used for the analyses. There were no gender differences for formal disclosure, but the informal disclosure rate of CSA was 2.4 times higher for women than men, and this effect remained significant after controlling for abuse characteristics and attitudes, even though the gender difference decreased slightly. Furthermore, women and men reported different reasons for not disclosing CSA in their personal network. Women were more worried than men that family and friends would discover the abuse and reported more insecurity of what to do in this situation. Professionals in the field of CSA should consider a gender perspective when developing guidelines. Men have rarely been the subject of studies of disclosure after CSA. Professionals should focus more on general mental health outcomes of men that are not related with CSA directly, but where the effects of CSA may exert more indirectly through associations with other problems in life.

Do Measures of Posttrauma Factors Better Explain PTSD Severity Than Pretrauma Factors? An Empirical Reply to Ogle et al.

Ogle, Rubin, and Siegler (2016) concluded that postevent risk factors account for PTSD symptomatology much better than pretrauma factors. However, in their study several postevent predictors such as involuntary recall and physical reactions to trauma memory were related to and assessed simultaneously with PTSD symptomatology. Removing content-related items from the PTSD measure would, according to the authors, ensure that results were not being driven by potential content overlap. In the present prospective study (N = 887) we test their assumption that removing such items prevents that results are overlap driven. Correlational and multiple regression analyses showed that the associations between pre-event mental health and neuroticism on the one side and PTSD symptomatology on the other were equal regardless of if and which symptom cluster of PTSD was removed from our PTSD measure. Based on these findings we conclude that Ogle et al.’s assumption needs to be rejected.Ogle, Rubin, and Siegler (2016) concluded that postevent risk factors account for PTSD symptomatology much better than pretrauma factors. However, in their study several postevent predictors such as involuntary recall and physical reactions to trauma memory were related to and assessed simultaneously with PTSD symptomatology. Removing content-related items from the PTSD measure would, according to the authors, ensure that results were not being driven by potential content overlap. In the present prospective study (N = 887) we test their assumption that removing such items prevents that results are overlap driven. Correlational and multiple regression analyses showed that the associations between pre-event mental health and neuroticism on the one side and PTSD symptomatology on the other were equal regardless of if and which symptom cluster of PTSD was removed from our PTSD measure. Based on these findings we conclude that Ogle et al.’s assumption needs to be rejected.