Lesley Cottrell

Relative influences of perceived parental monitoring and perceived peer involvement on adolescent risk behaviors: An analysis of six cross-sectional data sets.

PURPOSE To assess: (a) the relative impact of monitoring and peer involvement among six cohorts of African-American youth in their mid-adolescent years, over a decade of research in one urban area, and (b) the consistency of the impact of the two influences over time. METHODS Baseline data were collected from six cohorts involving 1279 low income African-American youth aged 13 to 16 years involved in community based studies conducted over a decade in an urban area. Self-reported behaviors, and perceptions of parental monitoring and peer risk-involvement were assessed through structured questions. Data were analyzed by frequency distribution, one-way ANOVA, and multiple logistic regression. RESULTS There was a rapid increase in sexual activity and substance use behaviors during mid-adolescence. Monitoring had a protective influence on substance use behaviors and sexual activity, but had no impact on condom use or drug trafficking. Peer involvement influenced all evaluated risk behaviors. The influences overall did not statistically change over time. CONCLUSIONS Despite the marked increase in risk behaviors during mid-adolescence, monitoring and peer involvement both influenced adolescent behaviors across each cohort.

Longitudinal influence of perceptions of peer and parental factors on African American adolescent risk involvement

To explore the long-term contributions of perceived peer and parental influences on adolescent risk and protective behaviors (sexual involvement, condom use, and drug use), we assessed self-reported behaviors and perceptions of peer risk involvement and parental supervision and communication among 383 low-income, urban African Americans aged 9 to 15 years at baseline over a 4-year, period. Baseline perceptions of peer sexual involvement were significantly associated with youth sexual behavior at baseline and were predictive of sexual involvement through all 4 years of follow-up. Perceived parental monitoring was inversely correlated with sexual involvement ment through 3 years of follow-up. Perceptions of peer condom use were associated with increased levels of condom use at baseline and through 6 months of follow-up. Positive parental communication was correlated with increased condom use. Drug use was higher among youths who perceived peers or family members to be using drugs and was inversely correlated with increased parental monitoring and supervision. Stepwise regression revealed peer and parental influences for all three behaviors. Perceptions of both peer and parental behaviors influence long-term risk and protective behaviors of adolescents. Therefore, parents should be included in adolescent riskreduction intervention efforts. Inclusion of friends and/or changing youth perceptions of peer involvement may also be effective intervention strategies.

Metabolic Abnormalities in Children with Asthma

RATIONALE Childhood asthma and obesity have reached epidemic proportions worldwide, and the latter is also contributing to increasing rates of related metabolic disorders, such as diabetes. Yet, the relationship between asthma, obesity, and abnormal lipid and glucose metabolism is not well understood, nor has it been adequately explored in children. OBJECTIVES To analyze the relationship between asthma diagnosis and body mass in children across the entire range of weight percentile categories, and to test the hypothesis that early derangement in lipid and glucose metabolism is independently associated with increased risk for asthma. METHODS Cross-sectional analysis of a representative sample of public school children from a statewide community-based screening program, including a total of 17,994 children, 4 to 12 years old, living in predominantly rural West Virginia, and enrolled in kindergarten, second, or fifth grade classrooms. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS We analyzed demographics; family history; smoke exposure; parent-reported asthma diagnosis; body mass index; evidence of acanthosis nigricans as a marker for developing insulin resistance; and fasting serum lipid profile including total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and triglycerides. Regardless of their body mass index percentile, children diagnosed with asthma were more likely than children without asthma to have higher triglyceride levels and acanthosis nigricans after controlling for sex differences and smoke exposure. CONCLUSIONS This study provides the first set of community-based data linking asthma, body mass, and metabolic variables in children. In particular, these findings uniquely describe a statistically significant association between asthma and abnormal lipid and glucose metabolism beyond body mass index associations.

Risk and Protective Factors Associated with Gang Involvement among Urban African American Adolescents

Data from 349 urban African American youth were analyzed to explore whether the differences in exposure to violence, resilience, and distress symptoms between gang members and nonmembers resulted from the risk behaviors in which youth participated or from the gang membership itself. Youth with current or past gang membership documented higher levels of risk involvement, lower levels of resilience, higher exposure to violence, and higher distress symptoms. These associations persisted even after controlling for age, gender, or risk involvement. This study provides evidence that gang membership itself may be associated with increased risk and ill-effects on psychological well-being and that strong family involvement and resiliency protect against gang involvement.

Impact of Childhood Epilepsy on Maternal Sleep and Socioemotional Functioning

Examinations of parental adjustment to their children’s chronic illness and parental sleep effects on their daily functioning have been conducted independently over the past 2 decades. As a result, very little is known about the association between parental sleep patterns and parental adjustment to their children’s illnesses. The goal of this study was multifaceted. Little is known about the sleep patterns of parents within a stressful situation such as having a child who experiences chronic health problems; therefore, more descriptives of parents’ sleep patterns needed to be identified. The second facet of this study was to examine the relationship between parental sleep problems and other measures of parental adjustment to their children’s chronic illness. Findings from 50 parents of children (5 years old and younger) who had been diagnosed with epilepsy revealed that parents spent an average of 4 hours sleeping during the night; awaking at least 3 times to check on their children. Parental awakening during the night was positively related to the number of seizures reported during a typical 24-hour period and parent perception of the seizure severity. Parental nighttime awakenings were inversely associated with parents’ perceptions of their own sleep quality, marital satisfaction, and maternal health. Findings from this study highlight the need for clinicians to investigate the current sleep patterns of parents whose children are receiving treatment for pediatric epilepsy.

Gender, emotional support, and well-being among the rural elderly

The current study sought to clarify the effects of social support on the psychological well-being of rural elders. Data were provided by 180 older men and women (mean age = 73.6 years) living in Northern Appalachia. Similar to the demographic profile of this region, most (97.2%) of the participants were Caucasian. Although mean differences in perceptions of emotional support did not emerge, the relative importance of various sources of support differed for men and women. For men, higher satisfaction with family support was associated with lower negative affect and higher positive affect. For women, although satisfaction with emotional support from family and more years of education were associated with lower levels of negative affect, emotional support from friends enhanced positive affect. The results suggest that new programs may be needed in order to help older rural men and women to maintain well-being in late life.

Patterns of initiation of sex and drug-related activities among urban low-income African-American adolescents.

PURPOSE To examine the pattern of adolescents involvement in drug-related behaviors and sexual initiation, and its relationship with: (a) age and gender, (b) sensation- seeking, (c) perceptions of peer and family risk involvement, and (d) involvement in high-risk sexual behavior. SUBJECTS Two hundred and sixty-one urban African-American youth, aged 9 to 15 years at baseline, who were sexually experienced by the end of the 4-year study interval. The longitudinal assessment (4 years) was focused on: (a) alcohol use, illicit drug use, and drug trafficking; (b) high-risk sex; (c) propensity to sensation seeking; and (d) perceived peer and family risk involvement. RESULTS Involvement increased over the 4-year study interval such that over half of the adolescents reported use of alcohol and/or use of marijuana in the final assessment period. For each of the three drug-related activities examined, the largest proportion of youth who engaged in sexual intercourse never engaged in drug-related activity, and the next largest proportion initiated sexual involvement before drug use. Sensation-seeking scores, which were relatively stable across time, were lower among girls, and also were lower among youth who remained uninvolved in drug-related behaviors. For all three drug-related behaviors, rates of high-risk sex were higher among youth who initiated both sex and drugs, and were lower among youth who reported engaging only in sex. Although youth who did eventually initiate drug use had higher perceived levels of family and peer drug use compared to those who remained uninvolved, these perceptions did not contribute directly to high-risk sexual behavior. CONCLUSIONS Youth who will become both sexually active and involved with drugs during adolescence are especially vulnerable to involvement in high-risk sexual behavior.

The Influence of Representations of Attachment, Maternal–Adolescent Relationship Quality, and Maternal Monitoring on Adolescent Substance Use: A 2‐Year Longitudinal Examination

The present study examined the hypotheses that more secure representations of attachments to parents are associated with less adolescent substance use over time and that this link is mediated through relationship quality and monitoring. A sample of 200 adolescents (M = 14-16 years), their mothers, and close friends were assessed over 2 years. Higher levels of security in attachment styles, but not states of mind, were predictive of higher levels of monitoring and support and lower levels of negative interactions. Higher levels of security in attachment styles had an indirect effect on changes in substance use over time, mediated by maternal monitoring. These findings highlight the roles of representations of attachments, mother-adolescent relationship qualities, and monitoring in the development of adolescent substance use.

Importance of Android/Gynoid Fat Ratio in Predicting Metabolic and Cardiovascular Disease Risk in Normal Weight as well as Overweight and Obese Children

Numerous studies have shown that android or truncal obesity is associated with a risk for metabolic and cardiovascular disease, yet there is evidence that gynoid fat distribution may be protective. However, these studies have focused on adults and obese children. The purpose of our study was to determine if the android/gynoid fat ratio is positively correlated with insulin resistance, HOMA2-IR, and dislipidemia in a child sample of varying body sizes. In 7–13-year-old children with BMI percentiles ranging from 0.1 to 99.6, the android/gynoid ratio was closely associated with insulin resistance and combined LDL + VLDL-cholesterol. When separated by sex, it became clear that these relationships were stronger in boys than in girls. Subjects were stratified into BMI percentile based tertiles. For boys, the android/gynoid ratio was significantly related to insulin resistance regardless of BMI tertile with and LDL + VLDL in tertiles 1 and 3. For girls, only LDL + VLDL showed any significance with android/gynoid ratio and only in tertile 2. We conclude that the android/gynoid fat ratio is closely associated with insulin resistance and LDL + VLDL-, “bad,” cholesterol in normal weight boys and may provide a measurement of metabolic and cardiovascular disease risk in that population.

Development and Validation of a Parental Monitoring Instrument: Measuring How Parents Monitor Adolescents' Activities and Risk Behaviors.

The aim of this article is to describe the development and validation of the Parental Monitoring Instrument (PMI). The PMI was administered to a sample of 518 parent—adolescent (aged 12 to 17 years) dyads. Initial findings provide evidence of instrument reliability and validity. The exploratory factor analysis results suggested a seven-factor solution that explained approximately 48% of the variance. An analysis of the questions reveals reasonable interpretations of the seven factors: direct, indirect, restrictive, school, health, computer, and phone monitoring. Administration of the PMI may further our understanding of how parental monitoring is associated with adolescent activities and risk behaviors, setting the stage for informed strategies to improve parent—adolescent relationships.