Liisa Tyrväinen

The amenity value of the urban forest: an application of the hedonic pricing method

Abstract The majority of urban forest benefits represent non-consumptive use values, which include benefits derived from pleasant landscape, clean air, peace and quiet and screening, as well as recreational activities. The hedonic pricing method examines external benefits and costs of urban forests associated with housing. This investigation studied whether and how urban forest benefits are capitalized in property prices. It also searches for suitable variables for describing the green space benefits in hedonic pricing studies. Apartment sales data (1006 apartments) were collected in Joensuu, a town of 48000 inhabitants in North Carelia, Finland. Hedonic models were designed to explain purchase prices. Apartment characteristics, location, and environmental quality variables were used as explanatory variables in the models. Environmental and locality data were measured with respect to each specific house. Results indicate that urban forests are an appreciated environmental characteristic and that their benefits are reflected in the property prices Proximity of watercourses and wooded recreation areas as well as increasing proportion of total forested area in the housing district had a positive influence on apartment price. However, the effect of small forest parks was not clear. The range of the variable values was small, because there were many small wooded green spaces in the study locale. In addition, data concerning the views from the apartment or the composition of the forests was not available.

Benefits and Uses of Urban Forests and Trees

Trees and forests are, because of seasonal changes and their size, shape, and color, the most prominent elements of urban nature. Their benefits and uses range from intangible psychological and aesthetic benefits to amelioration of urban climate and mitigation of air pollution. Historically the main benefits of urban trees and forests relate to health, aesthetic and recreational benefits in industrialized cities. Moreover, green areas have provided people with subsistence by providing food, fodder, fuel, wood and timber for construction (see Chap. 2). Today, woodland, woods and trees are important to people especially through symbolizing personal, local, community and cultural meanings. They provide aesthetic enjoyment and create a pleasant environment for different outdoor activities. Woodland can provide an experience of nature in the middle of urban life. In particular, old woodland with big trees may provide urban people with the opportunity to recover from daily stress, revive memories and regain confidence. There is also an important educational value of urban forests. Contact with trees, in particular for children, can help people learn about nature and natural processes in an otherwise artificial environment. Urban trees and woodland also contribute to an attractive green townscape and thus communicate the image of a positive, nature-oriented city. Indirectly, urban trees and forests can promote tourism and enhance economic development. At the local level trees contribute to the quality of housing and working environments and their benefits are reflected in property values. The same urban woodland areas and trees may have multiple benefits that reinforce each other. Recreational woodland, for example, also reduces wind speed and traffic noise as well as improves the landscape in a nearby residential area. To a certain extent the distinction between different categories of benefits is artificial. However benefits have their own special features and therefore can be presented separately (Table 4.1). While these benefits of urban woodland, other tree stands and individual trees are not new they are still insufficiently recognised in urban planning and development processes (see Chap. 5). There is need to provide more knowledge on the role of urban woodland and trees in improvement of the environment and relate this to their social functions such as fostering mental and physical health. This chapter aims to give insight into the current state of knowledge about benefits and uses of urban forests and trees in Europe. This is a difficult enterprise due to the complexity of the European continent. Urban forest research is largely national or even Benefits and Uses of Urban Forests and Trees

Ecological and aesthetic values in urban forest management

Abstract In the planning processes of urban forests there are frequent conflicting opinions about the extent to which forests should be managed. On the one hand, management is needed to deal with the intensive use of forests, as well as unfavourable growing conditions, security factors and aesthetic variables. On the other hand, there is an increasing demand for unmanaged areas which is based primarily on ecological arguments. This paper presents research that was conducted in connection with the participatory planning process of Helsinki City forests. The main aim of this research was to study whether aesthetic and ecological values can be combined in the management of urban forests. Furthermore, the stability of forest landscape preferences during the participatory planning process was studied, along with the representativeness of planning groups compared to larger user groups. The data was collected in planning group meetings and public hearings in Helsinki during 1998–2000. Respondents evaluated a set of photographs designed to cover the main conflict situations in urban forest management: Thinnings, understorey management, the leaving of dead snags and decaying ground-wood. These results show that the majority of residents in Helsinki prefer managed forests. The preferences are, however, closely connected to the background characteristics of respondents. Younger residents with a higher education and active urban forest users prefer more ecologically-oriented management when compared to older residents with less education, or less active users. The individuals had a rather clear and relatively stable opinion of what constitutes suitable management in urban forests, but the views differed considerably as a whole. This means that a participatory planning process will typically lead to some type of compromise. Moreover, the planning groups in Helsinki reflected the opinions of the larger user groups rather well. This indicates that the currently used participatory planning approach sufficiently integrates public values into its planning process.

Forest management and public perceptions — visual versus verbal information

Forest and landscape management measures have impacts on the amenity value of forests. People may have certain attitudes towards management, in particular near urban areas. The aim of this study was to evaluate the impacts on scenic beauty and recreational value of five different management practices: small clear cutting, thinning, removal of undergrowth, natural state, and traditionally managed cultural landscape. In order to compare visual perceptions with preconceptions, two evaluation methods, visual presentation (pictures produced by image-capture technology) and verbal questions were used. Scenic beauty and recreational value were assessed from slides in which management measures were presented by the pairwise comparison technique. The results indicate that scenic beauty and recreational preferences differ considerably from each other. In the study areas, small clear cuttings had the most positive effect on scenic beauty and natural state had most positive effect on recreational value. Furthermore, preconceptions concerning different silvicultural measures did not consistently correspond to perceptions based on the assessment of visual images. This fact supports the use of visual presentation methods in future preference studies as well as in participatory forest planning projects.

Visualization in forest landscape preference research: a Finnish perspective

Abstract Knowledge on human reactions to visualizations and knowledge on the suitability of these visualizations to landscape preference studies is limited. This article aims at filling out some of this gap of information by presenting criteria for evaluating the suitability of visualization methods for forest landscape preference research purposes and by comparing the benefits and disadvantages of different means of visualization: on-site visits, original and manipulated photographs, and virtual landscape simulators. The focus of the article is on virtual landscape simulators that are totally or partly developed in Finland. Today digital image editing and virtual landscape simulators offer the most sophisticated means of visualization for forest landscape preference research. With the aid of these methods it is possible to control the variables that are not in the focus of the study. Landscape simulators are less labor-intensive than image editing and offer flexible movement between different viewpoints. Simulators are not restricted to represent limited areas in the manner of photographs. They are also able to link images with forest inventory data and planning systems. However, for preference research purposes these illustrations may correspond inadequately to the real world whereas digital image editing produces images corresponding to the realistic qualities of the original photos. In future, virtual landscape simulators will be the easiest and the most flexible means of visualization in forest landscape preference research given that the development of simulators will take into account the needs of preference research. Research purposes may require relatively high levels of realism in illustrations, which sets a need for large photographic databases, as well as integration with different sources of spatial data. In addition, the use of mixed techniques offers possibilities for efficient and accurate visualizations. More empirical research is needed in order to evaluate and compare the usability of visualization media in forest landscape preference research.

Influence of Forest Therapy on Cardiovascular Relaxation in Young Adults

Background. Despite increasing attention toward forest therapy as an alternative medicine, very little evidence continues to be available on its therapeutic effects. Therefore, this study was focused on elucidating the health benefits of forest walking on cardiovascular reactivity. Methods. Within-group comparisons were used to examine the cardiovascular responses to walking in forest and urban environments. Forty-eight young adult males participated in the two-day field research. Changes in heart rate variability, heart rate, and blood pressure were measured to understand cardiovascular reactivity. Four different questionnaires were used to investigate the changes in psychological states after walking activities. Results. Forest walking significantly increased the values of ln(HF) and significantly decreased the values of ln(LF/HF) compared with the urban walking. Heart rate during forest walking was significantly lower than that in the control. Questionnaire results showed that negative mood states and anxiety levels decreased significantly by forest walking compared with urban walking. Conclusion. Walking in the forest environment may promote cardiovascular relaxation by facilitating the parasympathetic nervous system and by suppressing the sympathetic nervous system. In addition, forest therapy may be effective for reducing negative psychological symptoms.

The relationship between perceived health and physical activity indoors, outdoors in built environments, and outdoors in nature.

Background: A body of evidence shows that both physical activity and exposure to nature are connected to improved general and mental health. Experimental studies have consistently found short term positive effects of physical activity in nature compared with built environments. This study explores whether these benefits are also evident in everyday life, perceived over repeated contact with nature. The topic is important from the perspectives of city planning, individual well-being, and public health. Methods: National survey data (n = 2,070) from Finland was analysed using structural regression analyses. Perceived general health, emotional well-being, and sleep quality were regressed on the weekly frequency of physical activity indoors, outdoors in built environments, and in nature. Socioeconomic factors and other plausible confounders were controlled for. Results: Emotional well-being showed the most consistent positive connection to physical activity in nature, whereas general health was positively associated with physical activity in both built and natural outdoor settings. Better sleep quality was weakly connected to frequent physical activity in nature, but the connection was outweighed by other factors. Conclusion: The results indicate that nature provides an added value to the known benefits of physical activity. Repeated exercise in nature is, in particular, connected to better emotional well-being.

Effect of afforestation on the scenic value of rural landscape

Afforestation of set‐aside land will have significant impacts on Finlands rural landscape. In this study, the visual impacts of gradual afforestation were evaluated by private non‐industrial forest and agricultural landowners, potential recreationists, and professionals of land use management. The scenic beauty of 32 different rural landscapes were assessed from slides, which were produced from nine original pictures by image‐capture technology, with the open landscape becoming gradually afforested in three stages. Scenic beauty was evaluated using a pairwise comparison technique and by rating landscapes using a scale from 1 to 10. In general, the scenic beauty decreased with the increasing intensity of afforestation. An exception to this was moderate afforestation, which can have a positive effect on scenic beauty. The more attractive the original landscape was, the greater the effect of afforestation was found to be. The differences in the evaluations of landowners were not as distinct as those of the ...

Emotional, restorative and vitalizing effects of forest and urban environments at four sites in Japan.

The present study investigated the well-being effects of short-term forest walking and viewing (“forest bathing”). The hypothesis in our study was that both environment (forest vs. urban) and activity (walking and viewing) would influence psychological outcomes. An additional aim was to enhance basic research using several psychological methods. We conducted the experiments using 45 respondents in four areas of Japan from August to September, 2011. The hypothesis in our study was supported, because significant interaction terms between the environment and activity were confirmed regarding the Profile of Mood States (POMS) indexes, Restorative Outcome Scale (ROS) and Subjective Vitality Scale (SVS). No statistical differences between the two experimental groups in any of the ten scales were found before the experiment. However, feelings of vigor and positive effects, as well as feelings of subjective recovery and vitality were stronger in the forest environment than in the urban environment.

Involving People in Urban Forestry — A Discussion of Participatory Practices throughout Europe

Planning and acting on issues relating to people’s living environment have increasingly become a socially embedded practice, shifting from serving an abstract public interest to actively engaging the public. Central to this approach is a greater emphasis on the exchange of knowledge and the development of ideas through communication with relevant stakeholders, including users, residents and community groups. This trend towards greater communication in urban environmental or ‘green’ planning parallels the current success of various concepts such as collaborative planning, citizenship, social capital and participatory democracy. In addition, urban renewal strategies and environmental improvement schemes for creating livable cities, the establishment of Local Agenda 21, and the growing attention to the social dimensions of sustainable forest management, all provide a context to develop new interactions between society and forestry. Cities, towns and suburbs are increasingly rich in different types of green spaces. In addition to traditional public areas such as urban woodland and parks, many different types of areas and new kinds of ownership or comanagement arrangements are now evident. As outlined by Agate (1998), these include community wildlife gardens, children’s farms, school nature areas and community forests. This new diversity provides many opportunities for community involvement – including training and education, consultation and active participation – the realization of which will fully develop many of the ‘real’ benefits from the urban forest: health and well-being, community development, environmental education, sustainable urban design and planning (see Chap. 4). The urban population represents a huge potential, often largely untapped, to deliver creative ideas, skills and manpower to take care of these spaces and to maximize their contribution to the quality of urban life. In various places throughout Europe, urban foresters, local authorities and community workers as well as individual activists are placing a higher priority on urban greening and a greater emphasis on ensuring that many different groups get as much benefit from it, using approaches that tap into the energy and commitment among local people. Very different projects all over Europe owe their success to the active participation of citizens. Examples of local initiatives are tree planting schemes and clean-up days. There are positive experiences with partnerships between city authorities and residents for the establishment and the maintenance of green spaces around high-rise housing blocks, for example in four city districts of Sofia, Bulgaria (Van Herzele and Denutte 2002) and in the suburb of Holma in Malmo, Sweden (Beer et al. 2003). At a larger scale, much of Involving People in Urban Forestry – A Discussion of Participatory Practices throughout Europe