Lili Feng

T-Cell Accumulation and Regulated on Activation, Normal T Cell Expressed and Secreted Upregulation in Adipose Tissue in Obesity

Background— Obesity is associated with chronic inflammation, which includes increased macrophage accumulation in adipose tissue (AT) and upregulation of chemokines and cytokines. T cells also play important roles in chronic inflammatory diseases such as atherosclerosis but have not been well studied in obesity. Methods and Results— Flow cytometric analysis showed higher numbers of T cells and macrophages in AT of diet-induced obese insulin-resistant male mice than in lean mice and obese females (P<0.05). RNase protection assay, ELISA, and flow cytometry indicated gender-dependent upregulation of mRNA and protein levels of regulated on activation, normal T cell expressed and secreted (RANTES) and its receptor CCR5 in AT of obese mice. Adipocytes, stromal/vascular cells from mouse AT, and human and murine adipocytes expressed RANTES. RANTES mRNA levels were negatively correlated with adiponectin in mouse AT. Adiponectin-deficient mice fed high-fat diet showed higher RANTES mRNA levels in AT than wild-type mice. Activated T cells coincubated with preadipocytes in vitro significantly suppressed preadipocyte-to-adipocyte differentiation. Obese humans with metabolic syndrome had higher mRNA levels of RANTES and CCR5 in subcutaneous AT than lean humans. RANTES and CCR5 mRNA levels were significantly higher in visceral than subcutaneous AT of morbidly obese humans. RANTES mRNA levels were positively correlated with CD3 and CD11b in human visceral AT. Conclusions— Obesity is associated with increased accumulation of T cells and macrophages in AT, which may play important roles in obesity-related disease by influencing preadipocyte/adipocyte functions. RANTES is an adipokine that is upregulated in AT by obesity in both mice and humans.

The neuronal repellent Slit inhibits leukocyte chemotaxis induced by chemotactic factors

Migration is a basic feature of many cell types in a wide range of species. Since the 1800s, cell migration has been proposed to occur in the nervous and immune systems, and distinct molecular cues for mammalian neurons and leukocytes have been identified. Here we report that Slit, a secreted protein previously known for its role of repulsion in axon guidance and neuronal migration, can also inhibit leukocyte chemotaxis induced by chemotactic factors. Slit inhibition of the chemokine-induced chemotaxis can be reconstituted by the co-expression of a chemokine receptor containing seven transmembrane domains and Roundabout (Robo), a Slit receptor containing a single transmembrane domain. Thus, there is a functional interaction between single and seven transmembrane receptors. Our results reveal the activity of a neuronal guidance cue in regulating leukocyte migration and indicate that there may be a general conservation of guidance mechanisms underlying metazoan cell migration. In addition, we have uncovered an inhibitor of leukocyte chemotaxis, and propose a new therapeutic approach to treat diseases involving leukocyte migration and chemotactic factors.

Uric Acid Causes Vascular Smooth Muscle Cell Proliferation by Entering Cells via a Functional Urate Transporter

Background: Soluble uric acid stimulates vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) proliferation by activating mitogen-activated protein kinases, and stimulating COX-2 and PDGF synthesis. The mechanism by which uric acid enters the VSMC is not known. We hypothesized that uric acid enters via transporters similar to that observed in the kidney. Methods: We studied the uptake of uric acid into rat VSMC under polarized and depolarized conditions and in the presence of organic anion transport (OAT) inhibitors (probenecid and benzbromarone) or p-aminohippurate (PAH). We also examined the ability of probenecid to inhibit uric acid-induced VSMC proliferation and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) synthesis. Results:14C-Urate uptake was shown in VSMC and was enhanced under depolarized conditions. 14C-Uric acid uptake was inhibited by probenecid and benzbromarone, as well as by unlabelled urate and PAH. Probenecid blocked VSMC proliferation and MCP-1 expression in response to uric acid. VSMC did not express rOAT1-3, rOAT-5 or URAT-1 mRNA by PCR, but did express the voltage-sensitive transporter (UAT) by both PCR and RNase protection assay. Conclusions: Urate enters VSMC by both voltage-sensitive and OAT pathways, and the uptake, cell proliferation and MCP-1 expression can be blocked by OAT inhibitors. The specific transporter(s) responsible for the urate uptake remains to be determined.

Nitric Oxide Modulates Vascular Disease in the Remnant Kidney Model

A loss of the microvascular endothelium occurs in the remnant kidney model of renal disease and may play an important role in progression (Kang et al, J Am Soc Nephrol, 12:1434, 2001). Given that nitric oxide (NO) is a potent endothelial cell survival factor, we hypothesized that stimulating (with L-arginine) or blocking (with nitro-L-arginine methyl ester, (L-NAME)) NO synthesis could modulate the integrity of the microvasculature and hence affect progression of renal disease. Rats underwent 5/6 nephrectomy (RK) and then were randomized at 4 weeks to receive vehicle, L-NAME, or L-arginine for 4 weeks. Systolic blood pressure and renal function was measured, and tissues were collected at 8 weeks for histological and molecular analyses. The effect of modulation of NO on vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) expression in rat aortic vascular smooth muscle cells (SMC) and mouse medullary thick ascending limb tubular epithelial cells (mTAL) was also studied. Inhibition of NO with L-NAME was associated with more rapid progression compared to RK alone, with worse blood pressure, proteinuria, renal function, glomerulosclerosis, and tubulointerstitial fibrosis. The injury was also associated with more glomerular and peritubular capillary endothelial cell loss in association with an impaired endothelial proliferative response. Interestingly, the preglomerular endothelium remained intact or was occasionally hyperplastic, and this was associated with a pronounced proliferation of the vascular SMCs with de novo expression of VEGF. Cell culture studies confirmed a divergent effect of NO inhibition on VEGF expression, with inhibition of VEGF synthesis in mTAL cells and stimulation of VEGF in vascular SMC. In contrast to the effects of NO inhibition, stimulation of NO with L-arginine had minimal effects in this rat model of progressive renal disease. These studies confirm that blockade of NO synthesis accelerates progression of renal disease in the remnant kidney model, and support the hypothesis that one of the pathogenic mechanisms may involve accelerated capillary loss and impaired angiogenesis of the renal microvasculature. Interestingly, inhibition of NO synthesis did not lead to a loss of the preglomerular endothelium, which may relate to the effect of NO blockade to stimulate VEGF synthesis in the adjacent vascular smooth muscle cell.

Targeting Stat3 with G-Quartet Oligodeoxynucleotides in Human Cancer Cells

Stat3 is an oncogene that is activated in many human cancer cells. Genetic approaches that disrupt Stat3 activity result in inhibition of cancer cell growth and enhanced cell apoptosis supporting the development of novel drugs targeting Stat3 for cancer therapy. G-quartet oligodeoxynucleotides (ODNs) were demonstrated to be potent inhibitors of Stat3 DNA binding activity in vitro with the G-quartet ODN, T40214, having an IC(50) of 7 microM. Computer-simulated docking studies indicated that G-quartet ODNs mainly interacted with the SH2 domain of Stat3 and were capable of inserting between the SH2 domains of Stat3 dimers bound to DNA. We demonstrated that the G-rich ODN T40214, which forms a G-quartet structure at intracellular but not extracellular K+ ion concentrations, is delivered efficiently into the cytoplasm and nucleus of cancer cells where it inhibited IL-6-stimulated Stat3 activation and suppressed Stat3-mediated upregulation of bcl-x and mcl-1 gene expression. Thus, G-quartet represents a new class of drug for targeting of Stat3 within cancer cells.

Hypothesis: dysregulation of immunologic balance resulting from hygiene and socioeconomic factors may influence the epidemiology and cause of glomerulonephritis worldwide

Glomerular diseases show diverse epidemiological characteristics throughout the world, which has been suggested to be caused by differences in genetics of the underlying populations or environmental exposure to the putative antigens or agents that either trigger or induce the disease. Recently, an alteration in immune balance of the T helper 1 (T(H)1) and T helper 2 (T(H)2) subsets has been implicated as a mechanism to explain the relative increase in allergic diseases in industrialized nations. According to the Hygiene Hypothesis, overcrowding and poor hygiene early in life may protect from atopic diseases because exposure to microbes predisposes in favor of a T(H)1-dominant response. Conversely, dominance of the T(H)2 subset would be responsible for the increasing incidence of allergies. We present the hypothesis that this imbalance may help explain the predilection for membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis (GN) and mesangial proliferative GN to be associated with developing and/or poor nations, whereas immunoglobulin A nephropathy and minimal change disease are observed more commonly in industrialized nations. The implication of the Hygiene Hypothesis is that clinical expression of immune-mediated renal disease would depend on the prevailing T(H)1/T(H)2 balance, rather than the etiologic agent, and it may help explain the epidemiological pattern of glomerular diseases worldwide.

Modulation of Inflammation by Slit Protein In Vivo in Experimental Crescentic Glomerulonephritis

A basic conservation of cell migration guidance mechanisms in the nervous and immune systems was proposed when Slit, known for its role in axon guidance, was found to inhibit chemokine-induced leukocyte chemotaxis in vitro. These studies examined the role of Slit2 in modulating inflammation in vivo. In a rat model of glomerulonephritis, endogenous glomerular Slit2 expression fell after disease induction, and its inhibition during the early disease period accelerated inflammation. Ex vivo glomerular leukocytes showed decreased chemokine and chemoattractant-induced chemotaxis in response to Slit2, suggesting an anti-inflammatory role for glomerular Slit2. In contrast to the effect of inhibition, glomerulonephritis was ameliorated by systemic Slit2 administration. Slit2 treatment improved disease histologically and also improved renal function when given early in the disease course. Leukocytes harvested from rats receiving Slit2 showed decreased monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP)-1-mediated migration, consistent with a peripheral Slit2 effect. In keeping with this functional alteration, Slit2-mediated inhibition of RAW264.7 cell chemotaxis was associated with decreased levels of active cdc42 and Rac1, implicating GTPases in leukocyte Slit2 signaling. These findings suggest a role for endogenous Slit2 in the inhibition of chemoattractant-mediated signals, demonstrate a potentially important anti-inflammatory effect for Slit2 in vivo, and provide further evidence for conserved mechanisms guiding the process of migration in distinct cell types.

Adenosine A2A receptor activation prevents progressive kidney fibrosis in a model of immune-associated chronic inflammation

Crescentic glomerulonephritis (GN) in Wistar-Kyoto rats progresses to lethal kidney failure by macrophage (Mφ)-mediated mechanisms. Mφs in nephritic glomeruli express adenosine A(2A) receptors (A(2A)Rs), the activation of which suppresses inflammation. Here, we pharmacologically activated the A(2A)Rs with a selective agonist, CGS 21680, and inactivated them with a selective antagonist, ZM241385, to test the effects on established GN. When activation was delayed until antiglomerular basement membrane GN and extracellular matrix deposition were established, glomerular Mφ infiltration was reduced by 83%. There was also a marked improvement in glomerular lesion histology, as well as decreased proteinuria. A(2A)R activation significantly reduced type I, III, and IV collagen deposition, and E-cadherin expression was restored in association with a reduction of α-smooth muscle actin-positive myofibroblasts in the interstitium and glomeruli. In contrast, pharmacological inactivation of A(2A)Rs increased glomerular crescent formation, type I, III, and IV collagen expression, and enhanced E-cadherin loss. Activation of A(2A)Rs suppressed the expression of the Mφ-linked glomerular damage mediators, transforming growth factor-β, osteopontin-1, thrombospondin-1, and tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-1. Thus, A(2A)R activation can arrest GN and prevent progressive fibrosis in established pathological lesions.

16-kDa prolactin down-regulates inducible nitric oxide synthase expression through inhibition of the signal transducer and activator of transcription 1/IFN regulatory factor-1 pathway

Angiogenesis plays a key role in promoting tumorigenesis and metastasis. Several antiangiogenic factors have been shown to inhibit tumor growth in animal models. Understanding their mechanism of action would allow for better therapeutic application. 16-kDa prolactin (PRL), a NH2-terminal natural breakdown fragment of the intact 23-kDa PRL, exerts potent antiangiogenic and antitumor activities. The signaling mechanism involved in 16-kDa PRL action in endothelial cells remains unclear. One of the actions of 16-kDa PRL is to attenuate the production of nitric oxide (NO) through the inhibition of inducible NO synthase (iNOS) expression in endothelial cells. To delineate the signaling mechanism from 16-kDa PRL, we examined the effect of 16-kDa PRL on interleukin IL-1beta-inducible iNOS expression, which is regulated by two parallel pathways, one involving IFN regulatory factor 1 (IRF-1) and the other nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-kappaB). Our studies showed that 16-kDa PRL specifically blocked IRF-1 but not NF-kappaB signaling to the iNOS promoter. We found that IL-1beta regulated IRF-1 gene expression through stimulation of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), which mediated signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 (Stat1) serine phosphorylation and Stat1 nuclear translocation to activate the IRF-1 promoter. 16-kDa PRL effectively inhibited IL-1beta-inducible p38 MAPK phosphorylation, resulting in blocking Stat1 serine phosphorylation, its subsequent nuclear translocation and activation of the Stat1 target gene IRF-1. Thus, 16-kDa PRL inhibits the p38 MAPK/Stat1/IRF-1 pathway to attenuate iNOS/NO production in endothelial cells.

Blocking of Monocyte Chemoattractant Protein-1 during Tubulointerstitial Nephritis Resulted in Delayed Neutrophil Clearance

The chemokine monocyte chemoattractant protein (MCP)-1 has been implicated in the monocyte/macrophage infiltration that occurs during tubulointerstitial nephritis (TIN). We investigated the role of MCP-1 in rats with TIN by administering a neutralizing anti-MCP-1 antibody (Ab). We observed significantly reduced macrophage infiltration and delayed neutrophil clearance in the kidneys of TIN model rats treated with the anti-MCP-1 Ab. To exclude the possibility that an observed immune complex could affect the resolution of apoptotic neutrophils via the Fc receptor, TIN model rats were treated with a peptide-based MCP-1 receptor antagonist (RA). The MCP-1 RA had effects similar to those of the anti-MCP-1 Ab. In addition, MCP-1 did not affect macrophage-mediated phagocytosis of neutrophils in vitro. Deposition of the anti-MCP-1 Ab in rat kidneys resulted from its binding to heparan sulfate-immobilized MCP-1, as demonstrated by the detection of MCP-1 in both pull-down and immunoprecipitation assays. We conclude that induction of chemokines, specifically MCP-1, in TIN corresponds with leukocyte infiltration and that the anti-MCP-1 Ab formed an immune complex with heparan sulfate-immobilized MCP-1 in the kidney. Antagonism of MCP-1 in TIN by Ab or RA may alter the pathological process, most likely through delayed removal of apoptotic neutrophils in the inflammatory loci.