Linda A. Reddy

Critical Issues in Response-To-Intervention, Comprehensive Evaluation, and Specific Learning Disabilities Identification and Intervention: An Expert White Paper Consensus

Developed in concert with the Learning Disabilities Association of America (LDA), this White Paper regarding specific learning disabilities identification and intervention represents the expert consensus of 58 accomplished scholars in education, psychology, medicine, and the law. Survey responses and empirical evidence suggest that five conclusions are warranted: 1) The SLD definition should be maintained and the statutory requirements in SLD identification procedures should be strengthened; 2) neither ability-achievement discrepancy analysis nor failure to respond to intervention alone is sufficient for SLD identification; 3) a “third method” approach that identifies a pattern of psychological processing strengths and weaknesses, and achievement deficits consistent with this pattern of processing weaknesses, makes the most empirical and clinical sense; 4) an empirically-validated RTI model could be used to prevent learning problems, but comprehensive evaluations should occur for SLD identification purposes, and children with SLD need individualized interventions based on specific learning needs, not merely more intense interventions; and 5) assessment of cognitive and neuropsychological processes should be used for both SLD identification and intervention purposes.

Implementation Science and School Psychology

The APA Division 16 Working Group on Translating Science to Practice contends that implementation science is essential to the process of translating evidence-based interventions (EBIs) into the unique context of the schools, and that increasing attention to implementation will lead to the improvement of school psychological services and school learning environments. Key elements of implementation and implementation science are described. Four critical issues for implementation science in school psychology are presented: barriers to implementation, improving intervention fidelity and identifying core intervention components, implementation with diverse client populations, and implementation in diverse settings. What is known and what researchers need to investigate for each set of issues is addressed. A discussion of implementation science methods and measures is included. Finally, implications for research, training and practice are presented.

Effectiveness of School-Based Prevention and Intervention Programs for Children and Adolescents with Emotional Disturbance: A Meta-Analysis.

The present study evaluated the effectiveness of school-based prevention and intervention programs for children and adolescents at-risk for and with emotional disturbance. Published outcome studies (k=29) from December, 1988, to March, 2006, including 1405 children and adolescents were reviewed. Each investigation was coded on several variables describing the child, parent, and teacher samples, as well as reported outcome results. The overall mean weighted effect size was 1.00 at post-test and 1.35 at follow-up. Mean weighted ESs were 0.42 for between-subjects design studies, 0.87 for within-subjects design studies, and 1.87 for single-subject design studies. Prevention programs yielded a mean weighted ES of 0.54 and intervention programs produced a mean weighted ES of 1.35. Findings for specific outcome foci are presented and implications are discussed.

Executive Impairment Determines ADHD Medication Response: Implications for Academic Achievement:

Methylphenidate (MPH) often ameliorates attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) behavioral dysfunction according to indirect informant reports and rating scales. The standard of care behavioral MPH titration approach seldom includes direct neuropsychological or academic assessment data to determine treatment efficacy. Documenting “cool” executive-working memory (EWM) and “hot” self-regulation (SR) neuropsychological impairments could aid in differential diagnosis of ADHD subtypes and determining cognitive and academic MPH response. In this study, children aged 6 to 16 with ADHD inattentive type (IT; n = 19) and combined type (n = 33)/hyperactive-impulsive type (n = 4) (CT) participated in double-blind placebo-controlled MPH trials with baseline and randomized placebo, low MPH dose, and high MPH dose conditions. EWM/ SR measures and behavior ratings/classroom observations were rank ordered separately across conditions, with nonparametric randomization tests conducted to determine individual MPH response. Participants were subsequently grouped according to their level of cool EWM and hot SR circuit dysfunction. Robust cognitive and behavioral MPH response was achieved for children with significant baseline EWM/SR impairment, yet response was poor for those with adequate EWM/ SR baseline performance. Even for strong MPH responders, the best dose for neuropsychological functioning was typically lower than the best dose for behavior. Findings offer one possible explanation for why long-term academic MPH treatment gains in ADHD have not been realized. Implications for academic achievement and medication titration practices for children with behaviorally diagnosed ADHD will be discussed.

Understanding and preventing violence directed against teachers: Recommendations for a national research, practice, and policy agenda

Violence directed against K-12 teachers is a serious problem that demands the immediate attention of researchers, providers of teacher pre-service and in-service training, school administrators, community leaders, and policymakers. Surprisingly, little research has been conducted on this growing problem despite the broad impact teacher victimization can have on schooling, recruitment, and retention of highly effective teachers and on student academic and behavioral outcomes. Psychologists should play a leadership role in mitigating school violence, including violence directed toward teachers. There is a need for psychologists to conduct research accurately assessing the types and scope of violence that teachers experience; to comprehensively evaluate the individual, classroom, school, community, institutional, and cultural contextual factors that might predict and/or explain types of teacher violence; and to examine the effectiveness and sustainability of classroom, school, and district-wide prevention and intervention strategies that target teacher violence in school systems. Collectively, the work of psychologists in this area could have a substantial impact on schooling, teacher experience and retention, and overall student performance.

Serious Emotional Disturbance in Children and Adolescents: Current Status and Future Directions

Research indicates low rates of identification, poor school performance and completion, and high rates of restrictive placements, despite federal mandates requiring appropriate educational and mental health-related services for children with serious emotional disturbance (SED). The present paper examines the current status of assessment and treatment needs of children with SED. A synthesis of child characteristics, diagnostic criteria, placement rates, and outcomes is presented. Challenges to appropriate and effective care for children with SED are outlined. Five empirically validated behavioral prevention and intervention models are described as examples of “programs that work” with this population. New frameworks are provided to stimulate future thinking on behavioral assessment and therapy for children with SED. Finally, priorities for professional development and research are described.

Development and validation of an attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) executive function and behavior rating screening battery

Attention problems are ubiquitous in clinical practice, commonly found in many childhood learning and behavior disorders. Practitioners need cost- and time-effective methods for determining whether children have attention problems due to attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) or numerous other conditions. This study examined the utility of a 15-minute ADHD screening battery designed to differentiate ADHD (including inattentive, IT, and combined, CT, subtypes), specific learning disability (SLD), and typical child samples. Results for the 368 children (age 6 to 12 years) revealed that the Trail Making Test–Part B (Time/Errors), Hale–Denckla Cancellation Test (Time/Correct), and Child Attention Profile (Inattention/Overactivity) teacher ratings discriminated between typical and ADHD groups (87% correct classification; sensitivity = .64; specificity = .92) and differentiated between IT, CT, and SLD groups (80% correct classification; IT sensitivity = .82, and specificity = .96; CT sensitivity = .84, and specificity = .82). Discriminant function and Bonferroni post hoc results revealed different neuropsychological and behavioral patterns among groups.

Attention Mechanisms in Children with Anxiety Disorders and in Children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Implications for Research and Practice.

Inattention is among the most commonly referred problems for school-aged youth. Research suggests distinct mechanisms may contribute to attention problems in youth with anxiety disorders versus youth with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). This study compared children (8–17 years) with anxiety disorders (n = 24) and children (8–16 years) with ADHD (n = 23) on neurocognitive tests of both general and emotion-based attention processes. As hypothesized, children with ADHD demonstrated poorer selective and sustained attention, whereas youth with anxiety disorders demonstrated greater attentional bias toward threatening faces on a visual probe task. Findings suggest the neuropsychological differentiation of attention problems in anxious and ADHD children, despite potentially similar phenotypes.

Violence Against Teachers: Case Studies from the APA Task Force

Violence directed toward teachers has been understudied despite significant media and empirical investigation on school violence, such as student-to-student victimization and bullying. To date, there are relatively few published studies scattered across many countries. To address this void, the American Psychological Association, in collaboration with the National Education Association, created the first Violence Directed Against Teachers Task Force. Task Force recommendations and results from the Task Force U.S. national survey on teacher victimization are presented, together with teacher-reported case studies. The case studies are used to illustrate the range of educators, reported incidents, resulting actions by educators and schools, and stress faced by teachers. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

Aggression Replacement Training: A multimodal intervention for aggressive adolescents.

SUMMARY This article provides an overview of Aggression Replacement Training (ART), an empirically validated and theoretically grounded multimodal intervention designed to prevent and reduce aggression in adolescents. ART consists of three components: (1) skills streaming, designed to teach a broad range of social skills; (2) anger control training, a method for empowering youth to modify their own anger responsiveness; and (3) moral reasoning education, training to motivate youth to use skills acquired through the other two training components. Implementation issues are presented. Strategies to successfully transfer and maintain acquired skills, as well as enhance trainee motivation, are outlined. Efficacy studies suggest that ART is an effective program for aggressive adolescents in a wide range of treatment settings.