Linda A. Sullivan

Achieving positive social identity: Social mobility, social creativity, and permeability of group boundaries.

Three experiments examined 5 hypotheses of social identity theory ( H. Tajfel & J. C. Turner, 1979 ) concerning social mobility and social creativity strategies and how permeability of group boundaries affects strategy use. As predicted, members of negatively distinctive in-groups distanced themselves psychologically from the in-group (social mobility), rated the distinguishing dimension as less undesirable (social creativity), and rated the in-group more favorably on other dimensions (social creativity ) than did members of nondistinctive in-groups. Also as predicted, social creativity strategies were more likely to be used when group boundaries were impermeable rather than permeable. Permeability effects on social mobility strategies were more complex than predicted. Additional findings shed light on relationships among identity-enhancement strategies and on how dimensions are chosen to flatter a negatively distinctive in-group.

Stereotype effects of attributions, predictions, and evaluations: No two social judgments are quite alike.

The effects of stereotypes on attributions, predictions, and evaluations were examined in 2 experiments. Black out-group targets and White in-group targets were described in stereotype-consistent or stereotype-inconsistent ways. Stereotype-inconsistent behavior (a) was attributed to external causes or to effort, an internal stable cause for the out-group; (b) undermined predictions of future similar behavior, but only for the out-group; and (c) resulted in more extreme evaluations in the direction of the inconsistency. Attributions mediated the relationship between race and target evaluations. A model is presented that emphasizes the importance of distinguishing among different types of social judgments in assessing stereotype effects

Gender, Gender Role, and Body Image.

The relationship between gender role and body image was examined in this research. Females and males who differed in their gender roles (i.e., masculine, feminine, androgynous, or undifferentiated) completed the Body-Self Relations Questionnaire (B. A. Winstead & T. F. Cash, “Reliability and Validity of the Body-Self Questionnaire: A New Measure of Body Image,” paper presented at the meeting of the Southeastern Psychological Association, New Orleans, Louisiana, 1984) and a measure of self-esteem. Results indicated that feminine females evaluated their physical appearance less favorably than androgynous females, although physical appearance was equally important to both groups. The importance of the masculine component of gender role was reflected in the favorable body-image ratings of androgynous and masculine females in all domains (i.e., physical appearance, physical fitness, and physical health), and in the unfavorable ratings of feminine males in the physical fitness domain. Regression analyses to predict body-image ratings indicated that while self-esteem was an important predictor, it did not account for the relationships between gender, gender role, and body image. Implications of the findings for future research on the relationships between gender role, body image, and indices of mental health are discussed.

Engineering Persistence: Past, Present, and Future Factors and Gender Differences.

This research examined past, present, and future factors that might be related to persistence in engineering for women and men. Students currently or formerly enrolled in an undergraduate engineering program completed the Engineering Carrer Survey which assessed factors included in general models of college student change (e.g., background characteristics, interactions with socializing agents). Results indicated that: (1) present factors were more important than past or future factors in distinguishing between engineering persisters and nonpersisters, (2) few factors distinguished between women and men who persisted, or between women and men who did not, and (3) the best predictor of engineering persistence for both sexes was grade point average, although subsequent predictors depended on gender. Limitations and implications for future research are discussed.

Explaining gender differences in self-pay expectations : social comparison standards and perceptions of fair pay

This research examined gender differences in self-pay expectations and the factors that mediate these differences. On the basis of Major and Konars (1984) model, five mediators were considered: career paths, objective job inputs, perceived job inputs, job facet importance, and social comparison standards. The mediating role of a sixth factor, fair pay standards, was also examined. College seniors planning to enter a variety of occupational fields completed the Career Expectations Survey, which assessed their self-pay expectations and the six mediating factors. Findings indicated that, regardless of occupational field, women had lower career-peak self-pay expectations than men

The “Freshman 15”: Facts and Fantasies About Weight Gain in College Women:

This research tested the hypothesis that the “freshman 15” may be more fantasy than fact. The “freshman 15” refers to the belief that college students, particularly women, gain an average of 15 pounds during their first year of college. Female college students were weighed during their first month at college and again 6 months later. They also completed measures of self-esteem, body image, locus of control, and self-monitoring. Findings indicated that the majority of women remained the same weight during the first 6 months of college. A favorable body image was related to less weight loss among those who lost weight, but none of the other characteristics were related to weight change.

Body Image: Differences between High and Low Self-Monitoring Males and Females

Abstract This study investigated the relationship between self-monitoring, sex, and body image. One hundred seventy-seven undergraduate subjects completed the 18-item Self-Monitoring Scale ( Snyder & Gangestad, 1986 ) and the Body Self Relations Questionnaire (BSRQ) ( Winstead & Cash, 1984 ). The Self-Monitoring scale was scored for both the total score and the two factor scores (Other Directedness, Public Performance) identified by Briggs and Cheek (1988) . Results showed that sex was a better predictor, overall, of body image ratings than was self-monitoring. Nevertheless, self-monitoring was a significant predictor of body image ratings, particularly on scales pertaining to physical appearance. The total self-monitoring score was a more extensive predictor of ratings than the factor scores, whereas the factor scores were more specific predictors than the total score. Results are discussed in terms of social desirability norms for high self-monitors.

Cognition and Affect in Evaluations of Stereotyped Group Members

The contribution of cognition and affect to evaluations of stereotyped group members was examined. Subjects were American male undergraduates who evaluated a male homosexual or a male heterosexual applicant to a program in elementary education or fine arts. Cognitive measures used to predict evaluations were the discrepancies between stereotype components for the social category and stereotype components for the occupation; affective measures were four dimensions of mood-affect. Results indicated that negative affect predicted evaluations of homosexuals but not heterosexuals. Homosexuals were evaluated less favorably than heterosexuals for both occupations, despite the fact that homosexuals were perceived as less discrepant from occupational members than heterosexuals.

Social Support and Stress Factors in Child Maltreatment among Alcoholic Families

The relationships among social support, stress, child maltreatment and child aggressiveness in alcoholic families were investigated. Subjects were 62 fathers, 65 mothers, and 65 target children. Participants consisted of families in which the biological parents were either married or cohabiting, and in which there was a male child between the ages of 3 and 5 years. Individual difference factors assessed were extent of social support, stress, child maltreatment, and child aggressiveness. Based on prior research, 3 process models were proposed and tested against one another using path analysis. For this high risk alcoholic sample, results suggested that for fathers, social support and stress were each independent direct predictors of child maltreatment. In contrast, for mothers, social support was an indirect predictor of child maltreatment, and it buffered (moderated) the effect of stress on child maltreatment. For both fathers and mothers, lifetime alcohol problems predicted extent of child maltreatment. The data also indicated that child maltreatment influenced child aggressiveness.

Gender, Gender Role, and Physical Appearance

Abstract The relations among gender, gender role, and self-perceptions of physical appearance were examined in this research. Women and men who differed in their gender roles rated the attractiveness of, importance of, and desire to change their physique and facial appearance. Results indicated that women considered all components of appearance except height to be more important than did men and were more interested in changing their appearance than were men. Masculine women perceived themselves as “too large” but were more satisfied with their facial appearance than were traditional (feminine) women. Few physical attributes distinguished among the male gender-role groups. Directions for future research on the relation among gender, gender role, and physical appearance are discussed.