Linda Jarmulowicz

The receptive-expressive gap in the vocabulary of young second-language learners: Robustness and possible mechanisms

Adults and children learning a second language show difficulty accessing expressive vocabulary that appears accessible receptively in their first language (L1). We call this discrepancy the receptive-expressive gap. Kindergarten Spanish (L1) - English (L2) sequential bilinguals were given standardized tests of receptive and expressive vocabulary in both Spanish and English. We found a small receptive-expressive gap in English but a large receptive-expressive gap in Spanish. We categorized children as having had high or low levels of English exposure based on demographic variables and found that the receptive-expressive gap persisted across both levels of English exposure. Regression analyses revealed that variables predicting both receptive and expressive vocabulary scores failed to predict the receptive-expressive gap. The results suggest that the onset of the receptive-expressive gap in L1 must have been abrupt. We discuss possible mechanisms underlying the phenomenon.

English derivational suffix frequency and children's stress judgments.

Considering the importance of word and stem frequency in the adult lexical processing literature, and the effect of input frequency on childrens acquisition of words (Tardif, Shatz, and Naigles, 1997), it was hypothesized that childrens acquisition of English morphologically conditioned stress alternations would be affected by the frequency with which children were exposed to different stress-changing suffixes (e.g., -tion, -ity, and -ic). Study 1 determined the proportional representation of suffixes in a childrens literature corpus, thereby allowing the suffix variable to be established. Study 2 empirically examined the effect of suffix frequency on school-aged childrens judgments of primary stress placement. Findings suggest that age and suffix frequency both play a role in childrens awareness of stress placement.

Lexical Frequency and Third-Graders' Stress Accuracy in Derived English Word Production.

This study examined the effects of lexical frequency on childrens production of accurate primary stress in words derived with nonneutral English suffixes. Forty-four third-grade children participated in an elicited derived word task in which they produced high-frequency, low-frequency, and nonsense-derived words with stress-changing suffixes (i.e., -tion, -ic, -ity). Derived word frequency affected stress production accuracy; however, the individual suffix also played an important role in stress placement, with -tion productions more accurate than either -ic or -ity productions. For the real words, derived word frequency relative to stem frequency was related to performance. Stress was less accurate on derived words that were much lower in frequency than their stems (e.g., tranquil/tranquility) and more accurate on derived words that approximated or exceeded their stem frequency (e.g., motivate/motivation). In addition to derived word and stem frequency, results are discussed with reference to several phonological characteristics that may also influence stress production accuracy.

Lexical Morphology: Structure, Process, and Development.

Recent work has demonstrated the importance of derivational morphology to later language development and has led to a consensus that derivation is a lexical process. In this review, derivational morphology is discussed in terms of lexical representation models from both linguistic and psycholinguistic perspectives. Input characteristics, including types of frequency (lexical, surface, affix, and relative) and transparency (semantic, phonological, and orthographic), are examined as key factors that affect processing and acquisition. We introduce the possibility that lexical prosody and syllabic characteristics are relevant to lexical representation and affix separability, and we propose that derivational morphemes can emerge to different degrees in a system that is sensitive to both sound and meaning. Finally, morphological development with a focus on childrens sensitivity to input characteristics is briefly reviewed, and we conclude with a perspective of how lexical representation can be a framework for derived word study in therapeutic or educational settings.

Hesitation patterns in third grade children's derived word productions

Hesitations have been considered to serve both cognitive and linguistic functions. This study presents analyses of childrens hesitations while producing English derived words with the suffix ‐ity. Two questions were considered: Do childrens linguistic skills influence their use and frequency of hesitations when producing derived words, and do childrens use of hesitations vary as a function of word frequency. Eight real words derived with the suffix ‐ity were produced by 20 third grade children and analysed for different hesitation types. Four of the target words were high in lexical frequency, and four were low in lexical frequency. Results indicated varying hesitation patterns based upon stress accuracy skill. Children with good stress accuracy skills tended to produce false starts, whereas children with poor stress accuracy skills tended to produce glottal stops and intra‐word pauses. Word frequency had a specific effect only for children with good stress accuracy skills.

Stress Judgment and Production in English Derivation, and Word Reading in Adult Mandarin-Speaking English Learners

For monolingual English-speaking children, judgment and production of stress in derived words, including words with phonologically neutral (e.g., -ness) and non-neutral suffixes (e.g., -ity), is important to both academic vocabulary growth and to word reading. For Mandarin-speaking adult English learners (AELs) the challenge of learning the English stress system might be complicated by cross-linguistic differences in prosodic function and features. As Mandarin-speakers become more proficient in English, patterns similar to those seen in monolingual children could emerge in which awareness and use of stress and suffix cues benefit word reading. A correlational design was used to examine the contributions of English stress in derivation with neutral and non-neutral suffixes to English word and nonword reading. Stress judgment in non-neutral derivation predicted word reading after controlling for working memory and English vocabulary; whereas stress production in neutral derivation contributed to word reading and pseudoword decoding, independent of working memory and English vocabulary. Although AELs could use stress and suffix cues for word reading, AELs were different from native English speakers in awareness of non-neutral suffix cues conditioning lexical stress placement. AELs may need to rely on lexical storage of primary stress in derivations with non-neutral suffixes.

Bilingual and monolingual children’s articulation rates during nonword repetition tasks

Aims and objectives: We know little about how the rate of speaking develops in bilingual children. The purpose of the current investigation was to explore the second language (L2) articulation rate in Spanish-English bilingual kindergarten children, and to compare the rates with those of monolingual English-speaking peers. Method/design: We performed a group-level, longitudinal study comparing articulation rates in two language groups (monolingual and bilingual). Data and analysis: Sixty-two monolingual English-speaking children and 62 Spanish-English bilingual peers repeated English-based nonwords of two-, three-, and four-syllable length; half contained complex syllable constructions (i.e., consonant clusters). Accuracy was treated as a measure of phonological knowledge. Articulatory duration for each nonword production was calculated, and duration measures were converted to syllables per second. English standardized vocabulary and phonological processing tests also were administered. Follow-up analyses compared a subsample of 19 Spanish-dominant children to 19 monolingual peers with relatively high language performance. Results: Bilingual children’s scores were significantly lower than those of their monolingual peers for English vocabulary, nonword repetition accuracy, and phonological processing. Despite this discrepancy, there was no statistically significant difference in the articulation rates of the two language groups either at the beginning or end of kindergarten. Nonwords with more frequent English phonological patterns were produced faster than nonwords with less frequent phonological patterns. Despite their increase in English language skills across the school year, neither language group experienced accompanying differences in articulation rate. Conclusions: These results demonstrate that Spanish-English bilingual children’s articulation rate while repeating nonwords of various length and complexity is similar to that of monolingual children’s, despite the bilingual children’s limited English phonological knowledge as measured by nonword repetition accuracy and sound matching. This runs contrary to expectations based on mainstream models that rely on frequency effects. We speculate that bilingual performance might be related to peer influences secondary to L2 immersion.