Linda Ng Boyle

The influence of driver distraction on the severity of injuries sustained by teenage drivers and their passengers

Studies show that teenage drivers are at a higher risk for crashes. Opportunities to engage in technology and non-technology based distractions appear to be a particular concern among this age group. An ordered logit model was developed to predict the likelihood of a severe injury for these drivers and their passenger using a national crash database (the 2003, U.S. DOT-General Estimate System [GES]). As one would expect, speeding substantially increases the likelihood of severe injuries for teenage drivers and their passengers. The results of the analysis also reveal that teenage drivers have an increased likelihood of more severe injuries if distracted by a cell phone or by passengers than if the source of distraction was related to in-vehicle devices or if the driver was inattentive. Additionally, passengers of teenage drivers are more likely to sustain severe injuries when their driver is distracted by devices or passengers than with a non-distracted or inattentive driver. This supports the previous literature on teenage drivers and extends our understanding of injuries for this age group related to distraction-related crashes.

Extending the Technology Acceptance Model to assess automation

Often joint human–automation performance depends on the factors influencing the operator’s tendency to rely on and comply with automation. Although cognitive engineering (CE) researchers have studied automation acceptance as related to task–technology compatibility and human–technology coagency, information system (IS) researchers have evaluated user acceptance of technology, using the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM). The parallels between the two views suggest that the user acceptance perspective from the IS community can complement the human–automation interaction perspective from the CE community. TAM defines constructs that govern acceptance and provides a framework for evaluating a broad range of factors influencing technology acceptance and reliance. TAM is extensively used by IS researchers in various applications and it can be applied to assess the effect of trust and other factors on automation acceptance. Likewise, extensions to the TAM framework use the constructs of task–technology compatibility and past experience to extend its description of the role of human–automation interaction in automation adoption. We propose the Automation Acceptance Model (AAM) to draw upon the IS and CE perspectives and take into account the dynamic and multi-level nature of automation use, highlighting the influence of use on attitudes that complements the more common view that attitudes influence use.

The Impact of Distraction Mitigation Strategies on Driving Performance

Objectives: An experiment was conducted to assess the effects of distraction mitigation strategies on drivers? performance and productivity while engaged in an in-vehicle information system task. Background: Previous studies show that in-vehicle tasks undermine driver safety and there is a need to mitigate driver distraction. Method: An advising strategy that alerts drivers to potential dangers and a locking strategy that prevents the driver from continuing the distracting task were presented to 16 middle-aged and 12 older drivers in a driving simulator in two modes (auditory, visual) and two road conditions (curves, braking events). Results: Distraction was a problem for both age groups. Visual distractions were more detrimental than auditory ones for curve negotiation, as depicted by more erratic steering, F(6, 155) = 26.76, p < .05. Drivers did brake more abruptly under auditory distractions, but this effect was mitigated by both the advising, t(155) = 8.37, p < .05, and locking strategies, t(155) = 8.49, p < .05. The locking strategy also resulted in longer minimum time to collision for middle-aged drivers engaged in visual distractions, F(6, 138) = 2.43, p < .05. Conclusions: Adaptive interfaces can reduce abrupt braking on curve entries resulting from auditory distractions and can also improve the braking response for distracted drivers. Application: These strategies can be incorporated into existing in-vehicle systems, thus mitigating the effects of distraction and improving driver performance.

Mitigating driver distraction with retrospective and concurrent feedback.

OBJECTIVES An experiment was conducted to assess the effects of retrospective and combined retrospective and concurrent feedback on driver performance and engagement in distracting activities. BACKGROUND A previous study conducted by the authors showed that concurrent (or real time) feedback can help drivers better modulate their distracting activities. However, research also shows that concurrent feedback can pose additional distractions due to the limited time and resources available during driving. Retrospective feedback, which is presented at the end of a trip (i.e., post-drive), can include additional information on safety critical situations during a trip and help the driver learn safe driving habits. METHOD A driving simulator study was conducted with 48 participants and 3 conditions: retrospective feedback, combined feedback (both retrospective and concurrent), and no feedback (baseline case). RESULTS The feedback conditions (retrospective and combined) resulted in faster response to lead vehicle braking events as depicted by shorter accelerator release times. Moreover, combined feedback also resulted in longer glances to the road. CONCLUSIONS The results suggest that both feedback types have potential to improve immediate driving performance and driver engagement in distractions. APPLICATION Combined feedback holds the most promise for mitigating the effects of distraction from in-vehicle information systems.

Acute care clinical indicators associated with discharge outcomes in children with severe traumatic brain injury.

Objective:The effect of the 2003 severe pediatric traumatic brain injury (TBI) guidelines on outcomes has not been examined. We aimed to develop a set of acute care guideline–influenced clinical indicators of adherence and tested the relationship between these indicators during the first 72 hours after hospital admission and discharge outcomes. Design:Retrospective multicenter cohort study. Setting:Five regional pediatric trauma centers affiliated with academic medical centers. Patients:Children under 18 years with severe traumatic brain injury (admission Glasgow Coma Scale score ⩽ 8, International Classification of Diseases, 9th Edition, diagnosis codes of 800.0–801.9, 803.0–804.9, 850.0–854.1, 959.01, 950.1–950.3, 995.55, maximum head abbreviated Injury Severity Score ≥ 3) who received tracheal intubation for at least 48 hours in the ICU between 2007 and 2011 were examined. Interventions:None. Measurements and Main Results:Total percent adherence to the clinical indicators across all treatment locations (prehospital, emergency department, operating room, and ICU) during the first 72 hours after admission to study center were determined. Main outcomes were discharge survival and Glasgow Outcome Scale score. Total adherence rate across all locations and all centers ranged from 68% to 78%. Clinical indicators of adherence were associated with survival (adjusted hazard ratios, 0.94; 95% CI, 0.91–0.96). Three indicators were associated with survival: absence of prehospital hypoxia (adjusted hazard ratios, 0.20; 95% CI, 0.08–0.46), early ICU start of nutrition (adjusted hazard ratios, 0.06; 95% CI, 0.01–0.26), and ICU PaCO2 more than 30 mm Hg in the absence of radiographic or clinical signs of cerebral herniation (adjusted hazard ratios, 0.22; 95% CI, 0.06–0.8). Clinical indicators of adherence were associated with favorable Glasgow Outcome Scale among survivors (adjusted hazard ratios, 0.99; 95% CI, 0.98–0.99). Three indicators were associated with favorable discharge Glasgow Outcome Scale: all operating room cerebral perfusion pressure more than 40 mm Hg (adjusted relative risk, 0.61; 95% CI, 0.58–0.64), all ICU cerebral perfusion pressure more than 40 mm Hg (adjusted relative risk, 0.73; 95% CI, 0.63–0.84), and no surgery (any type; adjusted relative risk, 0.68; 95% CI, 0.53– 0.86). Conclusions:Acute care clinical indicators of adherence to the Pediatric Guidelines were associated with significantly higher discharge survival and improved discharge Glasgow Outcome Scale. Some indicators were protective, regardless of treatment location, suggesting the need for an interdisciplinary approach to the care of children with severe traumatic brain injury.

Using driving simulators to assess driving safety.

Changes in drivers, vehicles, and roadways pose substantial challenges to the transportation safety community. Crash records and naturalistic driving data are useful for examining the influence of past or existing technology on drivers, and the associations between risk factors and crashes. However, they are limited because causation cannot be established and technology not yet installed in production vehicles cannot be assessed. Driving simulators have become an increasingly widespread tool to understand evolving and novel technologies. The ability to manipulate independent variables in a randomized, controlled setting also provides the added benefit of identifying causal links. This paper introduces a special issue on simulator-based safety studies. The special issue comprises 25 papers that demonstrate the use of driving simulators to address pressing transportation safety problems and includes topics as diverse as neurological dysfunction, work zone design, and driver distraction.

Differences in Off-Road Glances: Effects on Young Drivers’ Performance

Young drivers display more risk-taking behavior than other age groups. Performing distracting tasks is one such risky behavior that is observed among young drivers. However, due to inexperience, young drivers may not be able to appropriately compensate for the effects of distractions. A driving simulator study with 53 young drivers (aged 18–21) was conducted to assess the level of engagement with an in-vehicle secondary task. A cluster analysis revealed three groups of drivers that differed based on eye glance behavior and driving performance: drivers with low-risk, moderate-risk, and high-risk behavior. A subset of these drivers was provided with feedback to help modulate their distracting activities with the riskiest group benefitting most from feedback as indicated by enhanced glance behavior and driving performance. The findings have implications for developing better crash countermeasures to mitigate the effects of distraction.

The interaction of cognitive load and attention-directing cues in driving

Objective: This study investigated the effect of a nondriving cognitively loading task on the relationship between drivers’ endogenous and exogenous control of attention. Background: Previous studies have shown that cognitive load leads to a withdrawal of attention from the forward scene and a narrowed field of view, which impairs hazard detection. Method: Posner’s cue-target paradigm was modified to study how endogenous and exogenous cues interact with cognitive load to influence drivers’ attention in a complex dynamic situation. In a driving simulator, pedestrian crossing signs that predicted the spatial location of pedestrians acted as endogenous cues. To impose cognitive load on drivers, we had them perform an auditory task that simulated the demands of emerging in-vehicle technology. Irrelevant exogenous cues were added to half of the experimental drives by including scene clutter. Results: The validity of endogenous cues influenced how drivers scanned for pedestrian targets. Cognitive load delayed drivers’ responses, and scene clutter reduced drivers’ fixation durations to pedestrians. Cognitive load diminished the influence of exogenous cues to attract attention to irrelevant areas, and drivers were more affected by scene clutter when the endogenous cues were invalid. Conclusion: Cognitive load suppresses interference from irrelevant exogenous cues and delays endogenous orienting of attention in driving. Application: The complexity of everyday tasks, such as driving, is better captured experimentally in paradigms that represent the interactive nature of attention and processing load.

Mangrove ecosystem services and the potential for carbon revenue programmes in Solomon Islands

Mangroves are an imperilled biome whose protection and restoration through payments for ecosystem services (PES) can contribute to improved livelihoods, climate mitigation and adaptation. Interviews with resource users in three Solomon Islands villages suggest a strong reliance upon mangrove goods for subsistence and cash, particularly for firewood, food and building materials. Village-derived economic data indicates a minimum annual subsistence value from mangroves of US

Driver Performance at Two-Way Stop-Controlled Intersections on Divided Highways

345–1501 per household. Fish and nursery habitat and storm protection were widely recognized and highly valued mangrove ecosystem services. All villagers agreed that mangroves were under threat, with firewood overharvesting considered the primary cause. Multivariate analyses revealed village affiliation and religious denomination as the most important factors determining the use and importance of mangrove goods. These factors, together with gender, affected users’ awareness of ecosystem services. The importance placed on mangrove services did not differ significantly by village, religious denomination, gender, age, income, education or occupation. Mangrove ecosystem surveys are useful as tools for raising community awareness and input prior to design of PES systems. Land tenure and marine property rights, and how this complexity may both complicate and facilitate potential carbon credit programmes in the Pacific, are discussed.