Linda Smolak

Female athletes and eating problems: A meta‐analysis

OBJECTIVE The relationship between athletic participation and eating problems is examined using meta-analysis. Both the risk and protective elements of athletic participation are considered. METHOD Data from 34 studies were used to examine the overall relationship between athletic participation and eating problems. Relationships for specific sports, elite athletes, and various age groups are also examined. RESULTS Athletes appeared to be somewhat more at risk for eating problems than nonathletes. This was especially true of dancers. Significant effects did not emerge for gymnasts. Elite athletes, especially those in sports emphasizing thinness, were at risk. Nonelite athletes, especially in high school, had reduced risk of eating problems compared to controls. Body dissatisfaction was lower in athletes. CONCLUSION There appear to be circumstances under which sports participation by women constitutes a risk factor for certain elements of eating problems. In other situations, athletic participation may be protective against eating problems.

Body image in children and adolescents: where do we go from here?

During the past two decades, there has been an explosion of research concerning body image in children and adolescence. This research has been fueled both by concern about the effects of poor body image in children and adolescents themselves and by the assumption that body dissatisfaction during childhood and adolescence creates risk for the development of body image and eating disturbances as well as depression in adulthood. The extant research, however, has remained largely descriptive and is marked by methodological problems. The purpose of the present paper is to identify substantial gaps in the literature concerning body image in children and adolescents. The focus is on four major issues: (1) measurement, (2) epidemiological data, (3) developmental trends, and (4) the meaning of gender. Addressing these and related questions will aid in the development of treatment and prevention programs.

The Relation of Sociocultural Factors to Eating Attitudes and Behaviors among Middle School Girls

Three hundred and eighty-five girls ages 10 through 14 years were surveyed about eating behavior, body satisfaction, concern with being slender, and cues from parents, peers, and magazines in regard to weight management techniques and the importance of slenderness. A majority reported receiving a clear message from fashion magazines and peers or family members that slenderness is important and attainable through dieting and other methods. Two strong correlates of drive for thinness and disturbed patterns of eating were (a) reading magazines that contain information and ideas about an attractive body shape and about weight management, and (b) weight/shape-related teasing and criticism by family. This study indicates that body dissatisfaction and weight concerns reflect adoption of a socially approved female role. It also raises the possibility that some young adolescent girls live in a subculture of intense weight and body-shape concern that places them at risk for disordered eating behavior:

Body image, eating disorders, and obesity in youth : assessment, prevention, and treatment

This book examines the relationship between body image disturbances and eating disorders in our most vulnerable population: children and adolescents. Editors J. Kevin Thompson and Linda Smolak present a dynamic approach that combines current research, assessment techniques, and suggestions for treatment and prevention. Contributing authors offer techniques for treating obesity and eating disorders in children, point to possible sources of these disorders, map out the subtleties of working with youth of diverse ethnicities, and elucidate the connection between sexual abuse and body image.

Parental input and weight concerns among elementary school children.

OBJECTIVE This study examined the relative contributions of mothers and fathers direct comments about childs weight and modeling of weight concerns through their own behavior on childs body esteem, weight-related concerns, and weight loss attempts. METHOD Parents, 131 mothers and 89 fathers, of fourth and fifth grade boys and girls completed a brief survey which included measures of their own dieting attempts, concerns about their own shape, complaints about their own shape, and beliefs about calorie-restrictive dieting as well as the frequency of their comments to their child about the childs weight. Children were surveyed using the Body Esteem Scale as well as questions about their weight-related concerns and weight loss attempts. RESULTS Direct parental comments, especially by the mother, seemed to be more powerful influences than parental modeling of weight and shape concerns, although parental modeling did affect the childs beliefs and behaviors. Girls appeared to be more affected than did boys. DISCUSSION Parental comments and modeling do appear to affect elementary school childrens weight and shape-related attitudes and behaviors. Such parental behavior may be an appropriate target in prevention programs.

The use of the sociocultural attitudes towards appearance questionnaire with middle school boys and girls

OBJECTIVE To assess the psychometric validity of versions of the Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Questionnaire (SATAQ) designed for use with middle school girls and boys. METHOD As part of a larger study, the SATAQ was administered to 505 middle school children. To assess concurrent validity, scales concerning the use of Weight Control and Muscle Building Techniques as well as the Body Esteem Scale (BES) were also administered. Body mass index (BMI) was also calculated. RESULTS Both the girls and boys versions of the SATAQ showed adequate validity. Two SATAQ subscales, Internalization and Awareness of societal ideals of thinness, were identified for girls. For boys, three SATAQ subscales were identified: Internalization and Awareness of a muscular, non-fat ideal and a scale tapping the the importance of a Muscular Look. The subscales and total score showed acceptable concurrent validity. Even after controlling for BMI, they contributed significant explained variance for the use of Weight Control Techniques in both boys and girls and use of Muscle Building Techniques in boys. Patterns of relationships among variables differed by gender. DISCUSSION The results suggest that sociocultural influences play a role in the use of Weight Control and Muscle Building Techniques for middle school boys although their influence is not as strong as it is for the use of Weight Control Techniques by middle school girls. The SATAQ seems to be an adequate measure of the nature of some of these influences.

Eating disorders : innovative directions in research and practice

Improving Understanding and Care for the Eating Disorders - Paul E. Garfinkel and Barbara J. Dorian Classification of Eating Disorders - David Herzog and Sherry S. Delinski Risk Factors for Eating Pathology: Recent Advances and Future Directions - Eric Stice Protective Factors in the Development of Eating Disorders - Marjorie Crago, Catherine Shisslak, and Anne Ruble Gender and Eating Problems - Linda Smolak and Sarah K. Murnen Challenging the Myth of the Golden Girl: Ethnicity and Eating Disorders - Linda Smolak and Ruth H. Striegel-Moore Health Services Research for Eating Disorders in the United States: A Status Report and a Call to Action - Vicki Garvin and Ruth H. Striegel-Moore The Potential of Professionally Developed Self-Help interventions for the Treatment of Eating Disorders - Vicki Garvin, Ruth H. Striegel-Moore, Allan Kaplan, and Stephen Wonderlich Integrative Cognitive Therapy for Bulimic Behavior - Stephen Wonderlich, James Mitchell, Carol Peterson, and Scott Crow Psychopharmacology of Eating Disorders: Current Knowledge and Future Directions - James E. Mitchell Body Image Dissatisfaction as a Motivator for Healthy Lifestyle Changes - Leslie J. Heinberg, J. Kevin Thompson, and Jonas L. Matzon The Prevention of Eating Disorders: Toward a Participatory Ecology of Knowledge, Action, and Advocacy - Michael Levine and Nina Piran Use of Interactive Media to Prevent Eating Disorders - C. Barr Taylor, Andy Winzelberg, and Angela Celio Imagining the Future - Ruth A. Striegel - Moore and Linda Smolak

Psychometric properties of the children's eating attitudes test

As interest in eating disorders has grown, there has been an increased need for psychometrically sound measures of young childrens eating attitudes and behaviors. The present report examines one promising measure, the childrens version of the Eating Attitudes Test (ChEAT; (Maloney, McGuire, & Daniels. [1988]. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 5, 541-543; Maloney, McGuire, Daniels & Specker. [1989]. Pediatrics, 84, 482-489). Like the EAT-26, (Garfinkel & Garner. [1982]. Anorexia nervosa: A multidimensional perspective. New York: Brunner/Mazel), this is a 26-item self-report questionnaire. As part of a larger study, the ChEAT was administered to 308 middle school girls. Analyses indicated that the 26-item version had adequate internal reliability, both for the entire sample and for each of the three grades. However, a 23-item version had even better internal reliability. Concurrent validity was demonstrated for the 26-item version in that correlations between the ChEAT and independent measures of weight management and body dissatisfaction were significant. Again, the concurrent validity was slightly better for the 23-item version. Factor analysis of the ChEAT-26 yielded factors quite similar to those of the EAT-26. However, an additional ChEAT factor emerged that tapped restricting and purging behaviors. On the whole, the ChEAT emerged as a promising instrument for measuring disturbed eating attitudes and behaviors in middle school girls.

Sociocultural Influences and Muscle Building in Adolescent Boys

Sociocultural influences on the use of muscle-building techniques, particularly food supplement and steroid use, were examined in a sample of 383 middle-school boys. A modified version of the tripartite influence model was evaluated with muscle-building techniques as the dependent variable. Results indicated that media, peer, and parent influences were independently related to the use of muscle-building techniques. Each was also partially mediated by social comparison tendencies. A comparison of boys who used food supplements to build muscles with those who did not indicated differences in peer, parent, and media influences; social comparison tendencies; body esteem; and depression. A comparison of boys who used steroids to build muscles with those who did not use steroids yielded the same differences. Results indicate the importance of considering sociocultural factors in designing prevention programs for boys.

A controlled evaluation of an elementary school primary prevention program for eating problems

Researchers have recently called for the development of primary prevention of eating disorders programs aimed at elementary school students. The present study reports on the development of a curriculum for fifth graders designed to encourage healthy eating, exercise, and body image while discouraging calorie-restrictive dieting, exercising for weight loss, and the development of body dissatisfaction. The program consisted of ten lessons taught by the classroom teachers. The influence of the curriculum on (1) knowledge about nutrition, body fat, and dieting; (2) attitudes about fat people and own body (body esteem); and (3) behaviors, including attempts at weight reduction, consumption of fruits and vegetables, and exercising, were evaluated in a pre-post controlled experimental design. There were 222 white public school children who participated in both the pre- and posttesting, 167 of whom were in the classrooms receiving the curriculum. Results indicated that knowledge was broadly improved by the curriculum. There were information improvements in terms of nutrition, effects of dieting, and causes of body fat. Attitudinal changes were less pronounced, although the curriculum did positively affect attitudes about fat people. Behavior, including eating patterns, exercise patterns, weight reduction attempts, and teasing of fat children, was not changed by participation in the curriculum.