Lindsay M. Parson

Non-transform offsets along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge south of the Azores (38°N–34°N): ultramafic exposures and hosting of hydrothermal vents

Ten contiguous non-transform offsets (NTOs) along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (MAR) south of the Azores (between 38°N and 35°40′N) have been studied in detail using swath bathymetric, acoustic backscatter and deep-tow high-resolution sidescan sonar (TOBI) data. In contrast with discontinuities studied elsewhere at slow-spreading ridges, these left-lateral NTOs are consistently broader and larger, with complex structural fabrics accommodating the offset. They are characterized by a range of elevated and faulted massifs detached from their segment flanks, with an irregular acoustic backscatter pattern. Some of these massifs have been explored and sampled recently during dive cruises revealing that they are composed of upper mantle peridotites and lower crustal rocks, and sometimes associated with high-temperature hydrothermal venting. Water column surveys adjacent to these massifs show high CH4 and low TDM (total dissolvable manganese) concentrations, possibly resulting from the process of serpentinization of ultramafic rocks. The correlation between the shallow dome-like shaped massifs and the high concentrations of CH4 (associated with low levels of Mn) is of particular interest to predict the outcrop of ultramafic rocks within the NTOs where no geological data are available. The exposure of the ultramafic massifs within the NTOs is favored by low magmatic supply and low-angle detachment faulting occurring at segment ends. The pervasive fracturing and faulting at these discontinuities favor circulation of hydrothermal fluids and occurrence of high-temperature vent sites.

FUJI Dome: A large detachment fault near 64°E on the very slow‐spreading southwest Indian Ridge

A continuous, domed detachment surface (FUJI Dome) has been imaged on the very slow-spreading southwest Indian Ridge using deep-towed side-scan sonar, and has been investigated by manned submersible and sea-surface geophysics. The Dome is morphologically similar to other oceanic detachments, core complexes or mega-mullions. In addition to bathymetric mullions observed in ship-borne bathymetry, finer scale spreading-parallel striations were imaged with the side scan. On the detachment surface, metabasalt crops out near the termination, probably as part of a thin fault sliver. Gabbro and troctolite probably crop out near the summit of the dome. The rest of the detachment surface is covered with sediment and rubble which is basaltic except for a single sample of serpentinite. Most of the detachment surface dips toward the ridge axis at 10°–20°, but near the breakaway it is strongly rotated outward, and dips away from the axis at up to 40°. Normal, undeformed volcanic seafloor crops out adjacent to the detachment. Modeling of sea surface magnetic data suggest the detachment was active from 1.95 Ma for about 1 Ma during a period of reduced and asymmetric magmatic accretion. Modeling of sea surface and seafloor gravity requires laterally fairly uniform but high density material under the Dome, and precludes steeply dipping contacts between bodies with large density contrasts at shallow levels under the Dome.

Segmentation and Morphotectonic Variations Along a Super Slow-Spreading Center: The Southwest Indian Ridge (57° E-70° E)

Bathymetric data along the Southwest Indian Ridge (SWIR) between 57°E and 70° E have been used to analyze the characteristics of thesegmentation and the morphotectonic variations along this ridge. Higheraxial volcanic ridges on the SWIR than on the central Mid-Atlantic Ridge(MAR) indicate that the lithosphere beneath the SWIR axis that supportsthese volcanic ridges, is thicker than the lithosphere beneath the MAR. Astronger/thicker lithosphere allows less along-axis melt flow andenhances the large crustal thickness variations due to 3D mantle upwellings.Magmatic processes beneath the SWIR are more focused, producing segmentsthat are shorter (30 km mean length) with higher along-axis relief (1200 mmean amplitude) than on the MAR. The dramatic variations in the length andamplitude of the swells (8–50 km and 500–2300 m respectively),the height of axial volcanic ridges (200–1400 m) and the number ofvolcanoes (5–58) between the different types of segments identifiedon the SWIR presumably reflect large differences in the volume, focusing andtemporal continuity of magmatic upwelling beneath the axis. To the east ofMelville fracture zone (60°42′ E), the spreading center isdeeper, the bathymetric undulation of the axial-valley floor is less regularand the number of volcanoes is much lower than to the west. The spreadingsegments are also shorter and have higher along-axis amplitudes than to thewest of Melville fracture zone where segments are morphologically similar tothose observed on the central MAR. The lower magmatic activity together withshorter and higher segments suggest colder mantle temperatures withgenerally reduced and more focused magma supply in the deepest part of thesurvey area between 60°42′ E and 70° E. The non-transformdiscontinuities show offsets as large as 70 km and orientations up toN36° E as compared to the N0° E spreading direction. We suggest thatin regions of low or sporadic melt generation, the lithosphere neardiscontinuities is laterally heterogeneous and mechanically unable tosustain focused strike-slip deformation.

Magmato-tectonic cyclicity at the ultra-slow spreading Southwest Indian Ridge: Evidence from variations of axial volcanic ridge morphology and abyssal hills pattern

On-axis deep tow side scan sonar data are used together with off-axis bathymetric data to investigate the temporal variations of the accretion processes at the ultra-slow spreading Southwest Indian Ridge. Differences in the length and height of the axial volcanic ridges and various degrees of deformation of these volcanic constructions are observed in side scan sonar images of the ridge segments. We interpret these differences as stages in an evolutionary life cycle of axial volcanic ridge development, including periods of volcanic construction and periods of tectonic dismemberment. Using off-axis bathymetric data, we identify numerous abyssal hills with a homogeneous size for each segment. These abyssal hills all display an asymmetric shape, with a steep faulted scarp facing toward the axis and a gentle dipping volcanic slope facing away. We suggest that these hills are remnants of old split axial volcanic ridges that have been transported onto the flanks and that they result from successive periods of magmatic construction and tectonic dismemberment, i.e., a magmato-tectonic cycle. We observe that large abyssal hills are in ridge sections of thicker crust, whereas smaller abyssal hills are in ridge sections of thinner crust. This suggests that the magma supply controls the size of abyssal hills. The abyssal hills in ridge sections of thinner crust are regularly spaced, indicating that the magmato-tectonic cycle is a pseudoperiodic process that lasts ~0.4 m.y., about 4 to 6 times shorter than in ridge sections of thicker crust. We suggest that the regularity of the abyssal hills pattern is related to the persistence of a nearly constant magma supply beneath long-lived segments. By contrast, when magma supply strongly decreases and becomes highly discontinuous, regular abyssal hills patterns are no longer observed.

Geotectonic setting of hydrothermal activity on the summit of Lucky Strike Seamount (37°17′N, Mid‐Atlantic Ridge)

We have investigated the relations between volcanic, tectonic, and hydrothermal activity on Lucky Strike Seamount (37°17?N, Mid-Atlantic Ridge) using a nested survey strategy involving collection of data from different deep-sea mapping systems. The highly tectonized seamount summit consists of three volcanic cones surrounding a relatively flat depression with a young lava lake in its center. Hydrothermal activity is focused mainly within the summit depression with most of the vents located proximal to the lava lake. Isolated active and inactive chimneys and mounds are widespread throughout the summit depression and occur on both volcanic (pillow lava) and hydrothermal (sulfide rubble and hydrothermally cemented breccias) substrates. The large volume of sulfide rubble, together with the nature of the sulfide structures, indicates that hydrothermal activity has been episodic but ongoing for a long period of time (hundreds to thousands of years). On the basis of the distribution of hydrothermal deposits, we propose a model of alternation between tectonic and volcanic control on hydrothermalism at Lucky Strike Seamount. Midsegment melt focusing produces a spatially and temporally stable heat source that sustains focused high-temperature hydrothermal activity over long time periods. During periods of amagmatic extension, active faulting within the summit depression provides multiple, near-surface fluid flow pathways for discharge of high-temperature fluids and widespread deposition of massive sulfides. During eruptive events, rapid effusion of very hot lava creates a lava lake and hyaloclastite deposits. The new sheet flows form a cap on the hydrothermal system, and fluid upflow is reorganized. Discharge of high-temperature fluids is restricted to isolated sites with relatively high permeability, for example, the edges of the lava lake. Much of the upwelling hydrothermal fluid pools in the subsurface, conductively cools, and mixes with entrained seawater before discharging as widespread low-temperature diffuse flow. Hyaloclastites become cemented, further augmenting the sealing of the system. Present-day activity at Lucky Strike Seamount represents this locally volcanically controlled phase of activity, despite the segment as a whole being dominantly amagmatic.

Segmentation, volcanism and deformation of oblique spreading centres: A quantitative study of the Reykjanes Ridge

Abstract New multi-beam swath bathymetry charts and high-resolution side-scan sonar imagery provide detailed evidence for volcanic and magmatic segmentation along the Reykjanes Ridge. By combining these data sets, we have quantified some relationships between different orders of segmentation, various characteristics of volcanism, and changes in tectonism along the ridge axis. Three orders of segmentation along the Reykjanes Ridge have been recognised: (1) A long-wavelength depth variation, or swell, that is related to the shoaling of the ridge towards Iceland; (2) Intermediate-wavelength rises of the order of 40–120 km; and (3) A short-wavelength, volcanic segmentation of the order of 5–30 km. The long-wavelength depth variation, which is probably controlled by the temperature of the underlying asthenosphere, has a maximum positive deviation from a predicted depth curve that forms a break in slope at 59–60°N. This feature migrated southward along the ridge at between 5 and 10 cm/yr at least four times in the past 10 Ma. The intermediate-wavelength rises, which are also temporally and spatially unstable, are probably related to local Rayleigh-Taylor style asthenospheric instabilities. The short-wavelength segments have an evolutionary life-cycle, starting with eruption via fissure volcanoes, and progressing by increasing magma flux to the formation of conical, and then shield-like, volcanoes. These segments are tectonically dismembered by extensional faulting, following a rapid decrease in magma supply. We propose a model for the construction of the volcanic layer of the Reykjanes Ridge which involves a cyclicity of magmatic and tectonic activity.

A survey of the Southwest Indian Ridge axis between Atlantis II fracture zone and the Indian Ocean Triple Junction : Regional setting and large-scale segmentation

The study of very low-spreading ridges has become essential to ourunderstanding of the mid-oceanic ridge processes. The Southwest Indian Ridge(SWIR) , a major plate boundary of the world oceans, separating Africa fromAntarctica for more than 100 Ma, has such an ultra slow-spreadingrate. Its other characteristic is the fast lengthening of its axis at bothBouvet and Rodrigues triple junctions. A survey was carried out in thespring of 1993 to complete a multibeam bathymetric coverage of the axisbetween Atlantis II Fracture Zone (57° E) and the Rodrigues triplejunction (70° E). After a review of what is known about the geometry,structure and evolution of the SWIR, we present an analysis of the newalong-axis bathymetric data together with previously acquiredacross-axis profiles. Only three transform faults, represented byAtlantis II FZ, Novara FZ, and Melville FZ, offset this more than 1000 kmlong section of the SWIR, showing that the offsets are more generallyaccommodated by ridge obliquity and non-transform discontinuities. From comparison of the axial geometry, bathymetry, mantle Bouguer anomaly and central magnetic anomaly, three large sections (east of Melville FZ, between Melville FZ and about 65°30′ E, and from there to the Rodrigues triple junction) can be distinguished. The central member, east of Melville FZ, does not resemble any other known mid-oceanic ridge section: the classical signs of the accretion (mantle Bouguer anomaly, central magnetic anomaly) are only observed over three very narrow and shallow axis sections. We also apply image processing techniques to the satellite gravity anomaly map of Smith and Sandwell (1995) to determine the off-axis characteristics of the Southwest Indian Ridge domain, more especially the location of the triple junction and discontinuities traces. We conclude that the large-scale segmentation of the axis has been inherited from the evolution of the Rodrigues triple junction.

Direct evidence for the distribution and occurrence of hydrothermal activity between 27°N–30°N on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge

Abstract A survey along the axis of the slow-spreading Mid-Atlantic Ridge, between 27°N and 30°N, using a combination of geophysical imaging and geochemical sensing has assessed the regional extent of hydrothermal activity. As a result, three areas were identified as possible sources of hydrothermal activity: at 27°00′N, 29°10′N and 30°02′N. The location of the strongest signals of high-temperature activity, at 29°10′N, was examined with a combination of water column sensors and sea floor observations, including submersible studies. These studies confirmed the presence of a high-temperature hydrothermal vent field comprising three discrete ‘black smoker’ sources of fluid in excess of 350°C, as well as two weathered sulphide mounds with diffuse, low-temperature fluid seeps. This systematic regional survey of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge reinforces the earlier supposition that hydrothermal activity is spatially restricted on slow spreading ridges in comparison to fast spreading ridges.

Second-order segmentation; the relationship between volcanism and tectonism at the MAR, 38°N–35°40′N

Deep-tow sidescan sonar data acquired along 240 km of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (MAR) between 35°40′N and 38°N have been combined with new bathymetric compilations and used to establish the recent tectonic and volcanic history of six second-order segments and their bounding non-transform offsets (NTOs). The segments show a range of volcanic and tectonic types, but in general the northernmost segments (i.e. those with greater influence from the Azorean hotspot) are shallower and more volcanically robust than those to the south, with hydrothermal activity in segment centres (for example, Menez Gwen and Lucky Strike). Nonetheless, this generalisation requires some modification due to temporal variations in the balance between magmatic supply and tectonic dismemberment. The NTOs are broad right-stepping discontinuities, locally up to 25 km wide, and accommodate offsets between 10 and 50 km. The discontinuities are mostly sediment-floored, and link the spreading segment tips with a range of structures. These include locally dense arrays of en echelon extensional normal faults, short lengths of linear strike–slip fault strands occasionally cutting basement blocks apparently stranded within the offsets. Basement blocks within the offsets are cross-cut by complexes of intersecting faults, suggesting that deformation is distributed across the zone. The pervasive faulting taking place at the NTOs favours fluid circulation and associated hydrothermal activity, as at the Rainbow Site at 36°17′N.

TOBI sidescan sonar imagery of the very slow-spreading Southwest Indian Ridge: evidence for along-axis magma distribution

New deep tow sidescan sonar data from the Southwest Indian Ridge reveal complex volcanic/tectonic interrelationships in the axial zone of this ultra-slow spreading ridge. While some constructional volcanic features resemble examples documented at the slow-spreading Mid-Atlantic Ridge, such as axial volcanic ridges, hummocky and smooth lava flows, their distribution and dimensions differ markedly. The largest axial volcanic ridges occur at segment centres, but fresh-looking volcanic constructions also occur at segment ends and in the deep basins marking the non-transform discontinuities. The orientations of the dominant fault population and main volcanic ridges are controlled by tectonic processes such as orthogonal extension in the sections of the ridge perpendicular to the spreading direction and transtensional extension in the obliquely spreading sections of the ridge. Minor faults and small volcanic ridges striking parallel to the axis in the oblique part of the ridge are not controlled by these extensional regimes. This observation suggests that the ridge axis acts as a zone of weakness and that magmatic processes, with associated fractures opening in response to magma pressure, may control local emplacements of axial volcanic ridges at obliquely spreading ridges. This non-systematic pattern of ridge characteristics suggests an along-axis variation between focused and distributed magmatic supply, a model which is supported by our interpretation of low-amplitude mantle Bouguer anomalies calculated for the area. We propose that a change of the axial segmentation pattern, from two segments to the present-day three segments, may have introduced additional instability into the crustal accretion process.