Lindsay R. Matthews

Behavioural response to humans and the productivity of commercial dairy cows

This study examined the relationships between the attitude and the behaviour of the stockperson towards cows and the behavioural response to humans and the milk production of cows at 31 commercial dairy farms over one lactation. The attitude of the stockperson was measured on the basis of the stockpersons opinion of the cows behaviour and how the stockperson evaluated his own behaviour. The behaviour of the stockperson was measured by recording the nature and frequency of the tactile interactions and some visual and auditory interactions directed towards the cows. The behavioural response of cows to humans was assessed by observing their approach behaviour to an unfamiliar experimenter in a standard test and production records were collected for the entire lactation at each farm. Correlation and regression analyses using farm averages were used to examine relationships between human and cow variables. Several cow behaviour variables, indicative of fear of humans, were moderately (P<0.05) to highly (P<0.01) correlated with milk yield and composition and regression analysis indicated that fear of humans accounted for 19% of the variation in milk yield between farms. The results suggest that at farms where milk yield was low, cows showed less approach to the experimenter in the standard fear test than at farms where milk yield was higher. A composite attitude score, based on the responses of stockpeople to questions about patting and talking to cows, ease of movement of cows and cows recognising unfamiliar stockpeople, was moderately (P<0.05) to highly (P<0.01) correlated with the behaviour of the stockperson. While a number of stockperson behaviour variables were correlated (P<0.05) with milk yield, the former variables were generally poorly correlated with cow behaviour. Therefore these preliminary findings provide evidence that, as seen in the pig industry, sequential relationships may exist between the attitude and behaviour of the stockperson and the behaviour and productivity of commercial dairy cows. Research is required to further examine these relationships because of the possible implications on cow productivity and welfare.

The effects of feed restriction and lying deprivation on pituitary–adrenal axis regulation in lactating cows

Abstract In order to examine the effects of moderate feed restriction and periodic lying deprivation on pituitary–adrenal axis function in lactating dairy cows, 32 non-pregnant Jersey cows were allocated to two levels of feeding (4% vs. 3% of body weight of dry matter daily) and lying restriction (free lying vs. prevention of lying from 15:00 to 06:45 h daily) in a 2×2 factorial plan for 7 days. There were no feeding×lying interactions, and feeding level did not affect plasma cortisol concentrations, adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) and cortisol responses to challenge with 15 μg corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH), or ACTH and cortisol responses to CRH following the administration of 0.3 mg dexamethasone. Compared with free-lying animals, lying-restricted cows had increased basal plasma cortisol concentrations, and reduced ACTH and cortisol responses following CRH challenge relative to pre-challenge baselines. Lying-restricted cows also had an increased plasma cortisol/ACTH ratio for the total area under the hormone response curves following CRH. Dexamethasone administration prior to CRH challenge produced a similar result to CRH challenge alone, indicating that there were no differences between lying-restricted and free-lying cows in negative feedback sensitivity of the pituitary to glucocorticoids. In conclusion, 7 days of moderate feed restriction did not appear to alter pituitary–adrenal axis function, whereas periodic lying deprivation reduced pituitary responsiveness to CRH and increased plasma cortisol/ACTH ratio following CRH challenge.

Effects of sex, litter size and periconceptional ewe nutrition on offspring behavioural and physiological response to isolation

Maternal periconceptional undernutrition alters fetal hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis development. However, the effects of this early nutritional insult on postnatal HPA axis function and stress-related behaviours are unknown. We investigated in sheep the effects of different periods of undernutrition, and of sex and litter size, on offspring behavioural and cortisol responses to isolation stress. We studied four nutritional groups: controls well nourished throughout pregnancy (n=39), or ewes undernourished (UN, 10-15% body weight reduction) before mating (-60 to 0d, n=26), after mating (-2 to +30d, n=20) or both (-60 to +30d, n=36). At 4 and 18months of age, offspring were isolated for 5min, their behaviour video recorded, and plasma cortisol concentrations measured. Offspring of all undernourished groups demonstrated 50% fewer escape attempts than controls at 4 months of age, and offspring of UN-60+30 ewes had 20% lower plasma cortisol area under the curve in response to isolation at 18months. Females had higher cortisol concentrations and vocalised more than males at 4 and 18months, and were more active at 18months. After isolation, UN-2+30 males had higher cortisol concentrations than UN-2+30 females whereas in all other groups males had lower concentrations than females. Singleton males made more escape attempts than females, whereas in twins females made more escape attempts than males. These findings suggest that maternal periconceptional undernutrition in sheep can suppress behavioural reactions and cortisol secretion in response to isolation stress in the offspring into adulthood, and that these effects differ between males and females.

Best management practices to mitigate faecal contamination by livestock of New Zealand waters

Abstract This paper summarises findings from the Pathogen Transmission Routes Research Program, describing pathogen pathways from farm animals to water bodies and measures that can reduce or prevent this transfer. Significant faecal contamination arises through the deposition of faeces by grazing animals directly into waterways in New Zealand. Bridging of streams intersected by farm raceways is an appropriate mitigation measure to prevent direct deposition during herd crossings, whilst fencing stream banks will prevent access from pasture into waterways by cattle that are characteristically attracted to water. Riparian buffer strips not only prevent cattle access to waterways, they also entrap microbes from cattle and other animals being washed down‐slope towards the stream in surface runoff. Microbial water quality improvements can be realised by fencing stock from ephemeral streams, wetlands, seeps, and riparian paddocks that are prone to saturation. Soil type is a key factor in the transfer of faecal microbes to waterways. The avoidance of, or a reduction in, grazing and irrigation upon poorly drained soils characterised by high bypass flow and/or the generation of surface runoff, are expected to improve microbial water quality. Dairyshed wastewater should be irrigated onto land only when the water storage capacity of the soil will not be exceeded. This “deferred irrigation” can markedly reduce pollutant transfer to waterways, particularly that via subsurface drains and groundwater. Advanced pond systems provide excellent effluent quality and have particular application where soil type and/or climate are unfavourable for irrigation. Research needs are indicated to reduce faecal contamination of waters by livestock.

The demand for straw and feathers as litter substrates by laying hens

Abstract Consumer demand theory has been applied to investigate behavioural demands and environmental requirements of farm animals. Recent research with laying hens has shown that the demand for various floor litters (peat, sand, wood-shavings) is inelastic. Other types of litter (e.g., straw and feathers) are available to laying hens in some housing systems. This study aimed to determine the importance of straw and feathers to laying hens by measuring demand functions for these items. In 1 h sessions individual birds ( n =6) were given the opportunity every second day to work on fixed ratio (FR) schedules (FR5 to FR200) for access to either straw or feathers. The number of responses made and reinforcers delivered was recorded. All birds worked to gain access to straw but only three worked for feathers. None of the hens dustbathed consistently in either litter. The mean elasticities of the demand were significantly different from zero and were −0.48 (s.e. 0.04; p p

Operant technology applied to solving farm animal problems an assessment

Abstract The number of published studies which use operant conditioning techniques with farm animals is rapidly increasing. A wide range of journals carry such articles and some of the information is in abstract form only. This paper provides an overview of the scientific work done with cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, horses, dogs and hens and includes a general section where technological reports or papers on operant methods and apparatus designed for farm species are cited. The progress at Ruakura where the operant techniques have been directly applied to a range of on-farm problems is outlined, as are the lessons learned from such work. A bibliography covering the field of practical and theoretical operant papers with farmed species contains references additional to those cited in the overview.

Real-time physiological responses of red deer to translocations

To identify events or processes that may compromise the condition and welfare of wild or domesticated mammals during translocations (herding, pretransport confinement, loading, road transport, off-loading, posttransport confinement), red deer stags (Cervus elaphus) were outfitted with unique, remote blood-sampling and heart-rate devices and monitored in real time. Animals were translocated and monitored again on 2 further occasions (after 1-week recovery periods) to determine if red deer would habituate to such processes. Heart rates and levels of haematocrit and lactate rose during the initial herding and penning phase, and again during transitional events such as loading onto the transporter and, to a lesser extent, off-loading. Red deer may find these transitional events (that involve additional handling) more aversive than other parts of the process. A near linear, 3-fold increase in cortisol during the course of translocations suggested red deer became progressively stressed as time passed (sodium levels also increased, suggesting red deer became slightly dehydrated as well). In comparison, glucose and magnesium levels remained stable. The recorded changes are important because high adrenal activity is associated with an increase in an animals susceptibility to infectious diseases and may also result in the activation of latent infections, particularly in wild animals. Red deer showed little sign of habituating (or sensitizing) to repeated translocations (with the exception of small changes in haematocrit and glucose). ). Managers may reduce health and welfare problems associated with translocation by limiting the number and aversiveness of transitional events. Translocations should also be as short as possible, but longer trips could include short breaks (approx 40 min) in dark, cool environments to settle animals. Managers should ensure access to water and only translocate animals that are in good condition and outside of any sensitive phases of their life cycle (e.g., reproductive period).

Effects of yarding and handling procedures on stress responses of red deer stags (Cervus elaphus)

Abstract The aim of the present study was to evaluate the relative stressfulness of different components of typical yarding and close handling procedures on red deer stags. Behavioural observations, remotely collected blood samples and heart rate measures were obtained from undisturbed animals at pasture, during one of three procedures involving yarding, handling and restraint, and after return to pasture. The ‘Pen’ group (six stags per group) was left undisturbed in an indoor pen for 12 min. The ‘Draft’ treatment required a handler to enter the pen (twice) and move the animals around. The ‘Crush’ procedure required animals to be drafted from the group and restrained in a pneumatic drop-floor crush for 2 min. Plasma cortisol, lactate and glucose levels were elevated relative to pre-handling levels after all three handling procedures, with the greatest increases following the Crush treatment. Heart rate and three haematological parameters (haematocrit, red blood cell number and haemoglobin) also increased as a result of the handling treatments, with increases following Draft and Crush being greater than after Pen. Behaviourally, animals exposed to the three handling procedures spent similar total amounts of time standing, walking, grazing and lying upon release back to pasture, but Crush animals began grazing 20–40 min later than the Pen and Draft groups. These data indicate that the three handling procedures examined resulted in perturbations (from levels in undisturbed animals) of measures which are indicators of stress responses. However, given that all measures rapidly returned to resting values, deer wellbeing does not appear to be unduly compromised by such handling practices. The present study again demonstrates the usefulness of remote blood sampling devices for collecting blood from free-ranging flighty animals by eliminating the confounding effects of stress associated with manual blood sampling techniques.

Effects of litter size, sex and periconceptional ewe nutrition on side preference and cognitive flexibility in the offspring

Maternal undernutrition during pregnancy alters the physiology, behaviour and cognitive abilities of the offspring in sheep. Undernutrition restricted to the time around conception alters the physiology of the offspring, but effects on the behaviour and cognitive abilities are unknown. We studied the effects of mild periconceptional undernutrition in sheep on side preference and cognitive flexibility in the offspring. Ewes were well fed (controls) or mildly undernourished from 60 days before until 30 days after mating (PCUN; 10-15% body weight reduction). Offspring were evaluated at 4 and 18 months of age in a left-right choice maze using social and feeding motivation as rewards. We determined side preference, and assessed cognitive flexibility as the ability to improve runs required to reach criterion during two reversal learning episodes. Side preference in the PCUN offspring was close to neutrality in singleton males (p < or = 0.05) and twin females (p < or = 0.05) at 4 but not 18 months of age. Twin offspring tended to be more likely to change side preference between 4 and 18 months (p=0.07). Performance on reversal learning was similar in PCUN and control offspring, but speed of learning improved faster in female than in male lambs (p < or = 0.05) at 4 but not 18 months of age. These findings suggest that mild periconceptional undernutrition in sheep can alter behavioural laterality of the offspring, and that singleton/twin status, sex and postnatal age are all important factors to consider in evaluating the effects of prenatal insults on postnatal behaviour.

The effects of stationary periods and external temperature and humidity on thermal stress conditions within sheep transport vehicles

Abstract AIM: To identify the contributions of stationary periods and external climatic environments to thermal stress conditions for sheep on livestock transport vehicles during journeys in summer. METHODS: Two livestock transport vehicles carrying sheep, operating under commercial conditions in New Zealand, were monitored during February and March 2002. Temperature and humidity were logged in five pens inside each vehicle, as well as externally. From these data, the temperature-humidity index (THI) was calculated. Global positioning equipment was used to log the location of the vehicle and whether it was moving or stationary. Regression analysis was used to identify factors that made a significant contribution to the THI within the vehicle. Regression models included the effects of vehicle, journey, initial ambient temperature or THI, pen position and duration of each stationary period. RESULTS: The THI in the livestock pens generally increased when vehicles were stationary. The highest THI value (95) was recorded in a vehicle on an enclosed deck of a Cook Strait ferry. Ambient conditions, the initial THI of a pen, and duration of the stationary period were all significant contributors to increases in the THI. Some increases in the THI occurred in stationary vehicles despite ambient conditions being mild, suggesting that lack of airflow was a critical factor. During stationary periods, 34% of THI readings exceeded 75, and, on average, the THI increased by 0.16 for every minute of a stationary period. CONCLUSIONS: Increases in the THI that could be detrimental to the welfare of sheep could occur on stationary sheep transport vehicles at most daytime ambient temperatures during summer. For a given stocking density and vehicle design, the THI of a pen increased in proportion to the duration of the stationary period. Mild ambient conditions (<25°C) provided some protection against excessive THI increases if the duration of the stop was limited, but drivers are best advised to park their vehicles where there is airflow, and to minimise the duration of stops where possible. Livestock transport vehicles during summer should not be placed on enclosed ferry decks where airflow is absent or minimal.