Lisa Fern

The Impact of Integrated Maneuver Guidance Information on UAS Pilots Performing the Detect and Avoid Task

Nine active unmanned aircraft system (UAS) pilots were tasked with flying a simulated UAS in civil airspace and instructed to maintain safe separation (i.e., well clear) from surrounding traffic. Pilots’ task of maintaining separation (referred to here as ‘Detect-and-Avoid’, or DAA) was facilitated by four different traffic displays, each differing in the level of maneuver guidance they presented to the pilot. Pilots were found to spend the least amount of time implementing a maneuver when provided with an integrated form of directive guidance, but were found to subjectively prefer a maneuver guidance tool that allowed them to test self-derived maneuver options and then receive feedback as to that option’s predicted safety level. The results of this study are related back to previous research and to the task of identifying the minimum information requirements for UAS pilots performing the DAA task. Limitations and future research are also discussed.

Evaluating the Benefits and Potential Costs of Automation Delegation for Supervisory Control of Multiple UAVs

Previous studies have begun exploring the possibility that “adaptable” automation, in which tasks are delegated to intelligent automation by the user, can preserve the benefits of automation while minimizing its costs. One approach to adaptable automation is the Playbook®interface, which has been used in previous research and has shown performance enhancements as compared to other automation approaches. However, additional investigations are warranted to evaluate both benefits and potential costs of adaptable automation. The present study incorporated a delegation interface into a new display and simulation system, the multiple unmanned aerial vehicle simulator (MUSIM), to allow for flexible control over three unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) at three levels of delegation abstraction. Task load was manipulated by increasing the frequency of primary and secondary task events. Additionally, participants experienced an unanticipated event that was not a good fit for the higher levels of delegation abstraction. Treatment of this poor “automation fit” event, termed a “Non-Optimal Play Environment” event (NOPE event), required the use of manual control. Results showed advantages when access to the highest levels of delegation abstraction was provided and as long as operators also had the flexibility to revert to manual control. Performance was better across the two task load conditions and reaction time to respond to the NOPE event was fastest in this condition. The results extend previous findings showing benefits of flexible delegation of tasks to automation using the Playbook interface and suggest that Playbook remains robust even in the face of poor “automation-fit” events.

Designing Airspace Displays to Support Rapid Immersion for UAS Handoffs

Future concepts of operations for unmanned aerial systems (UAS) will result in control paradigms whereby a single operator, or teams of operators, control multiple vehicles. This shift in control paradigms will require novel human-automation interfaces to help operators manage new demands placed on performance, workload and situation awareness (SA) as they manage task switching and handoffs between vehicles, payloads, missions, targets, and crew. A simulation experiment was conducted to compare the effects of various airspace display formats on operator workload, performance and SA. The experiment followed structured interviews conducted with U.S. Army and Air Force UAS operators in which airspace and clearance information was identified as one of the key issues for UAS operations and handoffs. Based on these interviews, a dedicated airspace transition display was proposed to support handoffs during UAS operations. Operators were tasked with taking over an ongoing UAS mission in order to evaluate four different airspace display formats: an Internet Relay Chat room window based on current military operations; a text-based transition page embedded in the Multi-Function Display (MFD); a graphics-based transition page in the MFD; and a graphical display overlaid directly onto the operators’ current map display. Objective performance data, SA data, and subjective user ratings were collected. Results indicated improved task performance and SA, as well as lower workload ratings with the dedicated airspace transition displays compared to current baseline operations, with preference by operators given to graphical (as opposed to text-based) presentation formats.

UAS Measured Response: The Effect of GCS Control Mode Interfaces on Pilot Ability to Comply with ATC Clearances

The present study examined the effects of three different control mode interfaces on unmanned aerial system (UAS) pilots’ ability to comply with air traffic controller (ATC) traffic clearances. Pilots controlled a simulated UAS with a waypoint-only interface, an auto-pilot interface and a manual, stick and throttle interface. Researchers recorded pilots’ ‘measured response’ at several stages of ATC-pilot interaction, which consisted of verbal response times, initial response times, initial edit times, total edit times, and overall compliance times. Results indicate that pilots are best able to comply with ATC clearances when provided with auto-pilot and manual control inputs. Limitations to the present study and future analyses are discussed.

UAS integration into the NAS: an examination of baseline compliance in the current airspace system

As a result of the FAA Modernization and Reform Act of 2012, Unmanned Aerial Systems (UAS) are expected to be integrated into the National Airspace System (NAS) by 2015. Several human factors challenges need to be addressed before UAS can safely and routinely fly in the NAS with manned aircraft. Perhaps the most significant challenge is for the UAS to be non-disruptive to the air traffic management system. Another human factors challenge is how to provide UAS pilots with intuitive traffic information in order to support situation awareness (SA) of their airspace environment as well as a see-and-avoid capability comparable to manned aircraft so that a UAS pilot could safely maneuver the aircraft to maintain separation and collision avoidance if necessary. A simulation experiment was conducted to examine baseline compliance of UAS operations in the current airspace system. Researchers also examined the effects of introducing a Cockpit Situation Display (CSD) into a UAS Ground Control Station (GCS) on UAS pilot performance, workload and situation awareness while flying in a positively controlled sector. Pilots were tasked with conducting a highway patrol police mission with a Medium Altitude Long Endurance (MALE) UAS in L.A. Center airspace with two mission objectives: 1) to reroute the UAS when issued new instructions from their commander, and 2) to communicate with Air Traffic Control (ATC) to negotiate flight plan changes and respond to vectoring and altitude change instructions. Objective aircraft separation data, workload ratings, SA data, and subjective ratings regarding UAS operations in the NAS were collected. Results indicate that UAS pilots were able to comply appropriately with ATC instructions. In addition, the introduction of the CSD improved pilot SA and reduced workload associated with UAS and ATC interactions.

UAS Contingency Management: The Effect of Different Procedures on ATC in Civil Airspace Operations

UAS currently lack key capabilities required to routinely integrate with the current Air Traffic Management (ATM) system, including standardized and predictable procedures for managing off nominal or contingency events, especially those that are specifically related to UAS and their unique communications architecture [i.e., loss of the command and control communications link(s). A simulation experiment was conducted to examine the effects of a variety of currently-employed UAS contingency procedures on sector safety and efficiency, and Air Traffic Controller (ATC) workload. ATC participants were tasked with maintaining safe separation standards in a busy Terminal Radar Approach Control (TRACON) sector that included a single UAS. During different trials, the UAS would execute one of five contingency types, including one trial with no contingency (i.e., baseline), three different contingency procedures for the loss of command and control link, and one emergency landing procedure. Objective aircraft separation and sector throughput data, workload ratings, situation awareness ratings, and subjective ratings regarding the safety and efficiency of UAS operations in the NAS were collected. Results indicated that the simulated UAS contingency procedures had no significant impact on objective measures of safety and efficiency compared to the baseline. Further, there were no significant differences in subjective workload and situation awareness ratings between the baseline and any of the contingency procedures.

Human-Automation Challenges for the Control of Unmanned Aerial Systems:

The continuing proliferation in the use of Unmanned Aerial Systems (UAS) in both civil and military operations has presented a multitude of human factors challenges from how to bridge the gap between the demand and availability of trained operators, to how to organize and present data in meaningful ways. Underlying many of these challenges is the issue of how automation capabilities can best be utilized to assist human operators manage increasing complexity and workload. The purpose of this discussion panel is to examine current research and perspectives on human automation interaction and how it relates to the future of UAS control. The panel is composed of five well-known researchers, all experts in the area of human-automation interaction. The range of topics that the panelists will discuss includes: how automation taxonomies can be applied to UAS design; opportunities to exploit automation capabilities in multi-vehicle contexts; current examples of automation research results, particularly in the area of multiple UAS control, and how they can be applied for future UAS; and how to design automation to maximize UAS mission effectiveness.

Tools and Techniques for MOMU (Multiple Operator Multiple UAV) Environments; an Operational Perspective

Multiple operators controlling multiple unmanned aerial vehicles (MOMU) can be an efficient operational setup for reconnaissance and surveillance missions. However, it dictates switching and coordination among operators. Efficient switching is time-critical and cognitively demanding, thus vitally affecting mission accomplishment. As such, tools and techniques (T&Ts) to facilitate switching and coordination among operators are required. Furthermore, development of metrics and test-scenarios becomes essential to evaluate, refine, and adjust T&Ts to the specifics of the operational environment. To illustrate, tools that were designed and developed for MOMU operations as part of a US-Israel collaborative research project are described and associated research findings are summarized.

Effects of Display Location and Information Level on UAS Pilot Assessments of a Detect and Avoid System

Minimum display requirements and performance standards for Detect and Avoid (DAA) systems are currently being developed to safely integrate Unmanned Aircraft Systems into the National Airspace System (NAS). The present study examines UAS pilots’ subjective assessments of four display configurations with either basic or advanced levels of information presented on a standalone or integrated display. Post-trial and post-simulation questionnaires queried pilots on their subjective ability to safely perform tasks and effectively utilize available information on each display. Responses indicated that the majority of pilots considered each display to be acceptable for a pilot-in-the-loop DAA task overall, but also revealed a strong preference for an integrated display with advanced information in the form of conflict resolution tools. Implications on the development of DAA display requirements, as well as the relation between the subjective evaluations and the objective performance data from previous studies are discussed.

Delegation Control In Control of Unmanned Aerial Systems (UAS)

Building on the development of the playbook® concept for control of Unmanned Aerial Systems developed by Smart Information Flow Technology (SIFT) (Miller, Goldman, Funk, Wu and Pate (2003), the Army Aeroflightdynamics directorate extended and tested this concept. Similar to a quarterback calling a play in football, the UAS operator can call a “play” that tasks multiple heterogeneous UAS simultaneously. This frees up the operator from having to input way-points and manually coordinate the UASs. Several simulations were run to test the boundaries and conditions under which this technique would be useful. Plays were consistently shown to result in better performance and lower operator workload. This was true even when a series of experiments were conducted that were specifically designed to look at plays in conditions where they might not be optimal. Following this work, flight demonstrations highlighted the technical maturity of the technique. A second flight demonstration flew tactically correct and high value plays as judged by Army UAS operators. Playbook® is a well-tested, mature technology; the next step should be development and transition of an operational system.