Lisa Naughton-Treves

Tourism revenue-sharing around national parks in Western Uganda: early efforts to identify and reward local communities.

Throughout much of the tropics, human-wildlife conflict impedes local support for national parks. By channelling tourism revenue to local residents, conservationists hope to offset wildlife costs and improve local attitudes toward conservation. To date tourism revenue-sharing (TRS) programmes have met mixed success. Local conditions and national policies that shape the success of TRS programmes were identified by comparing the experiences of both implementers and beneficiaries of pilot TRS programmes at three parks in western Uganda. Between 1995 and 1998, communities around these parks used a total of US

People and Wildlife: Socio-ecological factors shaping local support for wildlife: crop-raiding by elephants and other wildlife in Africa

83 000 of tourism revenue to build 21 schools, four clinics, one bridge, and one road. In 1996, the Ugandan parliament passed legislation that changed both the amount of money available for TRS and the institutions responsible for sharing the money. The programme was suspended at all three parks while the implementing agency (Uganda Wildlife Authority) struggled to design a programme that complied with the new legislation. TRS funds collected before 1996 were shared through 1998, but since then no revenue has been shared. However, a revised TRS programme is expected to resume in 2001. In semi-structured interviews, both implementers and beneficiaries evaluated local TRS programmes and compared them to other benefit-sharing projects, particularly those promoting sustainable use of non-timber products within park boundaries (n = 44). Both groups of respondents listed revenue-sharing as the most important advantage of living next to a national park. Seventy-two per cent of respondents indicated that they thought TRS had improved attitudes towards the protected areas, and 53% thought TRS was more important then sustainable use of non-timber forest products. Although respondents were generally positive about TRS, in informal discussions respondents repeatedly mentioned four potential obstacles to TRS success, namely poorly defined TRS policies and unsteady implementing institutions, corruption, inadequate funds, and numerous stakeholders with differing priorities. From this survey and literature from experiences in other African countries, there are four key components of successful revenue-sharing programmes: long-term institutional support, appropriate identification of the target community and project type, transparency and accountability, and adequate funding. With firm institutional support and realistic expectations, TRS can play an important role in improving local attitudes towards conservation.

People and Wildlife: Evaluating lethal control in the management of human–wildlife conflict

INTRODUCTION Human–wildlife conflict is often viewed as a local problem involving the misbehaviour of people or animals (e.g. elephants transgress park boundaries to raid neighbouring crops, or farmers plant crops in wildlife habitat). Framing the issue this way tends to promote technical solutions like fencing and buffer crops; useful but often inadequate measures for promoting the long-term coexistence of people and wildlife (Breitenmoser et al ., Chapter 4; Osborn and Hill, Chapter 5). Geographers, anthropologists and other social scientists can illuminate the deeper causes of conflict and help guide long-term management solutions in several ways. First, social scientists can reveal the driving forces of land use change that impel people to plant crops or raise livestock in high-risk areas. Additionally, they can also assess the severity of the conflict by documenting the spatial and social distribution of wildlife damage, and the varying capacity of individuals to cope with such losses. Finally and more broadly, they can illuminate the social factors that intensify human–wildlife conflict or favour coexistence (Knight 2001). In this chapter, we analyse the socio-ecological factors that shape rural African citizens tolerance of crop loss to wildlife, particularly elephants ( Loxodonta africana ). Elephants are the focus of much human–wildlife conflict research in Africa. They deserve special consideration as an Appendix I CITES species and a tourist, ‘flagship’ species. We first survey 26 reports from 15 African countries to identify factors that intensify human–wildlife conflict, and to compare losses between elephants and other ‘pests’ at different scales.

Longitudinal Analysis of Attitudes Toward Wolves

INTRODUCTION Throughout human history, agriculturists have used an array of techniques (irrigation, cultivation, fertilizer, herbicides, pesticides, fences, etc.) to give domesticated species a competitive edge over wild plants and animals. Often the cheapest and most practical strategy came down to killing the competition – especially large vertebrates. Government agencies traditionally responded to agriculturalists needs without concern for wildlife survival. In fact, the original mission of many wildlife management agencies was not to protect wildlife, but rather to kill all wild animals that threatened human safety or agricultural development (Graham 1973). Because of their slow reproductive rates and low density, large vertebrates proved relatively easy to eliminate, especially as people added poison, guns and bounty payments to their arsenal. Thus in the name of economic progress wolves were extirpated from most of the USA in a few decades (Young and Goldman 1944). Similarly, colonial officers ‘liberated’ vast tracts of fertile land in Africa from elephants, leopards and other threatening species (Naughton-Treves 1999; Treves & Naughton-Treves 1999). Elsewhere in the world, formal and informal lethal control programmes have driven the decline and even the extinction of several wildlife species (Breitenmoser 1998; Naughton-Treves 1999; Wilcove 1999; Woodroffe et al ., Chapter 1). Environmentalists today look back on these militaristic, morally charged campaigns in horror. Their calls to restore and protect wildlife are inspired by an increased appreciation of non-materialist values of wildlife. Now wildlife managers must respond to two seemingly contradictory mandates.

Lessons about parks and poverty from a decade of forest loss and economic growth around Kibale National Park, Uganda

Understanding individual attitudes and how these predict overt opposition to predator conservation or direct, covert action against predators will help to recover and maintain them. Studies of attitudes toward wild animals rely primarily on samples of individuals at a single time point. We examined longitudinal change in individuals attitudes toward gray wolves (Canis lupus). In the contiguous United States, amidst persistent controversy and opposition, abundances of gray wolves are at their highest in 60 years. We used mailed surveys to sample 1892 residents of Wisconsin in 2001 or 2004 and then resampled 656 of these individuals who resided in wolf range in 2009. Our study spanned a period of policy shifts and increasing wolf abundance. Over time, the 656 respondents increased agreement with statements reflecting fear of wolves, the belief that wolves compete with hunters for deer (Odocoileus virginianus), and inclination to poach a wolf. Endorsement of lethal control of wolves by the state and public hunting of wolves also increased. Neither the time span over which respondents reported exposure to wolves locally nor self-reported losses of domestic animals to wolves correlated with changes in attitude. We predict future increases in legal and illegal killing of wolves that may reduce their abundance in Wisconsin unless interventions are implemented to improve attitudes and behavior toward wolves. To assess whether interventions change attitudes, longitudinal studies like ours are needed. Análisis Longitudinal de las Actitudes Hacia Lobos.

Linking National Agrarian Policy to Deforestation in the Peruvian Amazon: A Case Study of Tambopata, 1986–1997

We use field data linked to satellite image analysis to examine the relationship between biodiversity loss, deforestation, and poverty around Kibale National Park (KNP) in western Uganda, 1996–2006. Over this decade, KNP generally maintained forest cover, tree species, and primate populations, whereas neighboring communal forest patches were reduced by half and showed substantial declines in tree species and primate populations. However, a bad decade for forest outside the park proved a prosperous one for most local residents. Panel data for 252 households show substantial improvement in welfare indicators (e.g., safer water, more durable roof material), with the greatest increases found among those with highest initial assets. A combination of regression analysis and matching estimators shows that although the poor tend to be located on the park perimeter, proximity to the park has no measureable effect on growth of productive assets. The risk for land loss among the poor was inversely correlated with proximity to the park, initial farm size, and decline in adjacent communal forests. We conclude the current disproportionate presence of poor households at the edge of the park does not signal that the park is a poverty trap. Rather, Kibale appears to provide protection against desperation sales and farm loss among those most vulnerable.

Population Declines of Colobus in Western Uganda and Conservation Value of Forest Fragments

Abstract Amazonian deforestation rates vary regionally, and ebb and flow according to macroeconomic policy and local social factors. We used remote sensing and field interviews to investigate deforestation patterns and drivers at a Peruvian frontier during 1986–1991, when rural credit and guaranteed markets were available; and 1991–1997, when structural adjustment measures were imposed. The highest rate of clearing (1.5% gross) was observed along roads during 1986–1991. Roadside deforestation slowed in 1991–1997 (0.7% gross) and extensive regrowth yielded a net increase in forest cover (0.5%). Deforestation along rivers was relatively constant. Riverside farms today retain more land in both crops and forest than do roadside farms where pasture and successional growth predominate. Long-term residents maintain more forest on their farms than do recent colonists, but proximity to urban markets is the strongest predictor of forest cover. Future credit programs must reflect spatial patterns of development and ecological vulnerability, and support the recuperation of fallow lands and secondary forest.

The incidental ecotourist: measuring visitor impacts on endangered howler monkeys at a Belizean archaeological site

The processes of habitat loss and fragmentation are probably the most important threats to biodiversity. It is critical that we understand the conservation value of fragments, because they may represent opportunities to make important conservation gains, particularly for species whose ranges are not in a protected area. However, our ability to understand the value of fragments for primates is limited by the fact that researchers have conducted many studies in protected areas, which do not represent most fragments, and studies are typically short term. Here we determine the long-term survival probability of red (Procolobus pennantii) and black-and-white colobus (Colobus guereza) inhabiting forest fragments outside of Kibale National Park, Uganda. Local communities use the fragments primarily for subsistence agriculture and fuelwood. We surveyed primate populations 3 times over 8xa0yr, made a total inventory of all trees 2 times, contrasted behavior of groups inhabiting 1 fragment with groups in the continuous forest, and judged the conservation value of the fragments by quantifying patterns of forest use by local people. Of the 20 fragments surveyed, 16 supported resident populations of colobus in 1995, 2 were cleared in 2000, and an additional 2 fragments were cleared by 2003. In 1995 we counted 165 black-and-white colobus, whereas in 2000 and 2003, we counted 119 and 75 individuals, respectively. Seven fragments supported red colobus in 1995, 11 in 2000, and 9 in 2003. In 2000 we counted 159 red colobus, while in 2003, we saw 145 individuals. For both species, activity patterns in continuous forest were similar to those in a fragment, with the exception that individuals in the fragment rested more. Colobus in the fragment ate more mature leaves than colobus in the continuous forest did. Fragments supported all the fuelwood needs of an average of 32 people who lived immediately adjacent to them, and partially supported families up to 3 farms away (ca. 400xa0m), representing 576 people. Intensive harvesting for fuelwood occurred when neighboring households engaged in beer brewing (an average of 9.6% of the households), gin distilling (8.8%), or charcoal production (14.5%). Overall, between 2000 and 2003, the average density of trees declined by 14 trees/ha (rangeu2009=u20090–60 trees/ha). If current rates of clearing continue, the probability that the fragments will continue to support colobus populations is low.

Primate Survival in Community-Owned Forest Fragments: Are Metapopulation Models Useful Amidst Intensive use?

SUMMARY Conservationists are missing opportunities to protect species at mass tourism sites where wildlife itself is not the main tourist attraction. At such locations are ‘incidental ecotourists’, i.e. tourists with multiple interests who encounter wildlife or fragile ecosystems inadvertently. A case study from Lamanai Archaeological Reserve, Belize, reveals the motivations of incidental ecotourists and their impact on an endangered primate species, the black howler monkey, Alouatta pigra. Four hundred and seventy-one visitors were surveyed to assess their travel goals, conservation commitments, and reactions to viewing howler monkeys. Data were also collected on the behaviour of tourists and monkeys during encounters. More intense tourist interactions with howler monkeys were correlated with the number of tourists and the duration of the encounter; guided parties interacted more intensely than unguided parties. Tourists were largely unaware that these interactions may harm the howler monkeys. Qualitative observations of howler response to tourists suggest short- and long-term negative impacts. These impacts could be mitigated through more effective guide training, limiting tourist group size, and increasing entrance fees at the Reserve. Improving environmental education may reduce impacts and motivate some tourists to become advocates for conservation of endangered species.

The price of tolerance: wolf damage payments after recovery

Human modification of ecosystems is threatening biodiversity on a global scale (Cowlishaw, 1999; Cowlishaw and Dunbar, 2000; Chapman and Peres, 2001). A recent Food and Agriculture Organization report (FAO, 1999) indicates that tropical countries are losing 127,300 km2 of forest annually, and this does not consider the vast area being selectively logged (approximately 55,000 km2; FAO, 1990). The extent of tropical forests burning each year is highly variable and difficult to measure precisely (FAO, 1999; Nepstad et al., 1999), however, the forests of Southeast Asia (Kinnaird and O’Brien, 1999) and the Brazilian Amazon (Nepstad et al., 1999) are especially impacted by the combination of droughts from El Nino and burning for agriculture (FAO, 1999). In 1997 and 1998 an area of 2 million ha of forest burned in Brazil and 4 million ha burned in Indonesia (FAO, 1999).