Lisa Suzuki

The Pond You Fish In Determines the Fish You Catch Exploring Strategies for Qualitative Data Collection

Qualitative research has increased in popularity among social scientists. While substantial attention has been given to various methods of qualitative analysis, there is a need to focus on strategies for collecting diverse forms of qualitative data. In this article, the authors discuss four sources of qualitative data: participant observation, interviews, physical data, and electronic data. Although counseling psychology researchers often use interviewing, participant observation and physical and electronic data are also beneficial ways of collecting qualitative data that have been underutilized.

Ethnography in counseling psychology research: Possibilities for application

The emphasis placed on prolonged engagement, fieldwork, and participant observation has prevented wide-scale use of ethnography in counseling psychology. This article provides a discussion of ethnography in terms of definition, process, and potential ethical dilemmas. The authors propose that ethnographically informed methods can enhance counseling psychology research conducted with multicultural communities and provide better avenues toward a contextual understanding of diversity as it relates to professional inquiry. Ethnography constitutes a major focus in the psychological literature; however, debates continue regarding the usage of these qualitative methods (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000a). Despite the fact that ethnographic methods fall within the purview of postpositivism and constructivism–interpretivism frameworks, positivists, postpositivists, and postmodernists currently argue over the definition of ethnography and criteria for evaluating ethnographic work. This article seeks to explore the meanings and manifestations of ethnography, as well as the utility of these methods for counseling psychology. We begin with definitions of ethnography. Next, we delineate the various types of ethnography used in contemporary social science research. Third, we explore concrete strategies for conducting ethnographic research. Ethical concerns and practices to establish validity and trustworthiness are also highlighted. Finally, we provide a discussion of challenges and recommendations for future directions in the use of ethnographic methods in counseling psychology.

Coping responses of Asian, Black, and Latino/Latina New York City residents following the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks against the United States

This study examined mechanisms for coping with adversity in a sample of 24 Asian, Black, and Latino/Latina residents of New York City following the September 11, 2001 World Trade Center (WTC) terrorist attacks. Using consensual qualitative research methodology (C. E. Hill, B. J. Thompson, & E. N. Williams, 1997), the authors identified 7 broad coping domains used by the participants: (a) sought additional information about the WTC tragedy, (b) expressed a range of emotions, (c) sought or gave support, (d) engaged in religious or spiritual activities, (e) avoidance, (f) forbearance, and (g) used indigenous healing techniques. Although there were similarities across racial or cultural groups and genders with regard to the coping responses used, there also were unique coping strategies by racial or cultural background and gender.

Causal Attributions for Problematic Family Interactions A Qualitative, Cultural Comparison of Western Samoa, American Samoa, and the United States

A mixed quantitative and qualitative research design compared 23 U.S. college students to 25 students from Western Samoa and 25 from American Samoa, with regard to differences in cultural beliefs and attributions. Survey responses suggested that Samoan students endorsed significantly more vertical, collective and vertical, individualistic cultural attitudes than U.S. students. Qualitative analysis of narrative responses to four vignettes depicting family conflicts suggested cultural differences in patterns of attribution of blame and responsibility for resolving the conflicts. U.S. students emphasized stable, internal, global attributions to character flaws. Samoan students emphasized more easily changed, situation-specific attributions; nonlinear, multifaceted judgments of blame; deference to hierarchy in group relationships; and context-oriented resolutions that avoid individual confrontation and emphasize preservation of relationships.

The cultural malleability of intelligence and its impact on the racial/ethnic hierarchy

This commentary highlights previous literature focusing on cultural and environmental explanations for the racial/ethnic group hierarchy of intelligence. Assumptions underlying definitions of intelligence, heritability/genetics, culture, and race are noted. Historical, contextual, and testing issues are clarified. Specific attention is given to studies supporting stereotype threat, effects of mediated learning experiences, and relative functionalism. Current test development practices are critiqued with respect to methods of validation and item development. Implications of the genetic vs. culture-only arguments are discussed with respect to the malleability of IQ. Rushton and Jensen (2005) review decades of literature to support a genetic basis for the racial/ethnic group hierarchy in intelligence, a position they have held unwaveringly for over 30 years. Their report gives little mention to findings that point to the impact of environment and race (i.e., race as a social construction) on intellectual development or performance—what they term the culture-only perspective. We are not among the culture-only adherents as characterized by Rushton and Jensen. While acknowledging the impact of biological factors on intelligence test performance, we have examined the impact of cultural/environmental factors that affect performance on aptitude and achievement measures. Our work, and that of others (e.g., Aronson, 2002; Sternberg, 1996), show us that intellectual performance is much more fragile and malleable than what is often noted in the current literature. The goals of our commentary are to highlight, briefly, assumptions underlying definitions (i.e., intelligence, heritability, genetics, culture, race) and clarify historical, contextual, and testing issues that were only briefly mentioned by Rushton and Jensen. Finally, we comment on the heuristic value and on policy implications of the research.

Integrating Practice Guidelines Into Professional Training Implications for Diversity Competence

The authors present the findings of a special task group (STG) organized to explore effective training strategies for the practice guidelines focused on diverse populations. They provide a brief literature review and summarize survey data from academic training directors regarding current use of practice guidelines. The authors then describe the Integrative Training Model (ITM), developed by the STG, as a framework for students and professionals to incorporate the complex array of information contained in each set of guidelines. Unique challenges associated with incorporating the ITM are described, as well as pedagogical considerations for both students and current professionals. The authors believe the ITM may help students and professionals increase their diversity competence by developing a more holistic understanding of the various dimensions and social group experiences that affect their clients and themselves.

The Facets of Cultural Competence Searching Outside the Box

Sue’s proposed model is based on a critique of the Eurocentric assumptions underlying current clinical practice and reflects his innovative thinking and unique synthesis of past research. The specific areas addressed in this article focus on an examination of the multidimensional model of cultural competence (MDCC) and issues related to the definition of competence and its measurement. Areas of needed elaboration in the model include complexities related to power hierarchies (i.e., authority, authorization, and leadership) and implications for training and practice. Particular emphasis is placed on the complexities of cultural competence and the important contributions of Sue’s MDCC as an important step in making cultural competence a reality in the practice of counseling psychology.

Two Decades of Research on the Problem Solving Inventory A Call for Empirical Clarity

Heppner, Witty, and Dixons review of 2 decades of research on the Problem Solving Inventory (PSI) provides highlights of more than 120 studies relating problem-solving appraisal to psychological adjustment, physical health, coping, and educational and vocational issues. Although clearly an impressive body of literature, the level of data reported is uneven with attention to effect sizes (e.g., correlations) and sample descriptors (e.g., race/ethnicity, n size, gender). Acknowledging the importance of the PSI and this major review, we provide commentary on the need for a meta-analysis and the continual expansion of research on the PSI with respect to diversity issues (i.e., race/ethnicity, gender).

Interpreting Cultural Variations in Cognitive Profiles

The prevailing view that Asian Americans are a “model minority” and a homogeneous group often obscures the reality of complex cultural variations in cognitive profiles of Asian Americans. In general, the research conducted on abilities primarily focuses on only a few Asian American subgroups (e.g., Japanese and Chinese) to the exclusion of other subgroups. While studies indicate that Asian Americans as a group tend to score higher on quantitative measures in comparison to verbal measures on aptitude tests, there is also evidence that significant subgroup differences in performance exist (e.g., Hsia & Peng, 1998). Issues of standardization, test validity and reliability also impact the interpretation of test performance of Asian Americans given diversity in language, level of acculturation, and other culturally relevant variables.

Intelligence and Culture: History and Assessment

This chapter examines current views on intelligence and its assessment with a particular focus on the cultural context. The topics to be addressed are discussed in three parts: historical influences, cultural issues in conceptualizing and assessing intelligence, and adapting and developing intelligence test adaptation in the wider world.