Lorena Norambuena

AtHMA1 Is a Thapsigargin-sensitive Ca2+/Heavy Metal Pump

The Arabidopsis thaliana AtHMA1 protein is a member of the PIB-ATPase family, which is implicated in heavy metal transport. However, sequence analysis reveals that AtHMA1 possesses a predicted stalk segment present in SERCA (sarcoplasmic/endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ ATPase)-type pumps that is involved in inhibition by thapsigargin. To analyze the ion specificity of AtHMA1, we performed functional complementation assays using mutant yeast strains defective in Ca2+ homeostasis or heavy metal transport. The heterologous expression of AtHMA1 complemented the phenotype of both types of mutants and, interestingly, increased heavy metal tolerance of wild-type yeast. Biochemical analyses were performed to describe the activity of AtHMA1 in microsomal fractions isolated from complemented yeast. Zinc, copper, cadmium, and cobalt activate the ATPase activity of AtHMA1, which corroborates the results of metal tolerance assays. The outcome establishes the role of AtHMA1 in Cd2+ detoxification in yeast and suggests that this pump is able to transport other heavy metals ions. Further analyses were performed to typify the active Ca2+ transport mediated by AtHMA1. Ca2+ transport displayed high affinity with an apparent Km of 370 nm and a Vmax of 1.53 nmol mg–1 min–1. This activity was strongly inhibited by thapsigargin (IC50 = 16.74 nm), demonstrating the functionality of its SERCA-like stalk segment. In summary, these results demonstrate that AtHMA1 functions as a Ca2+/heavy metal pump. This protein is the first described plant P-type pump specifically inhibited by thapsigargin.

AtUTr1, a UDP-glucose/UDP-galactose Transporter from Arabidopsis thaliana, Is Located in the Endoplasmic Reticulum and Up-regulated by the Unfolded Protein Response

The folding of glycoproteins in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) depends on a quality control mechanism mediated by the calnexin/calreticulin cycle. During this process, continuous glucose trimming and UDP-glucose-dependent re-glucosylation of unfolded glycoproteins takes place. To ensure proper folding, increases in misfolded proteins lead to up-regulation of the components involved in quality control through a process known as the unfolded protein response (UPR). Reglucosylation is catalyzed by the ER lumenal located enzyme UDP-glucose glycoprotein glucosyltransferase, but as UDP-glucose is synthesized in the cytosol, a UDP-glucose transporter is required in the calnexin/calreticulin cycle. Even though such a transporter has been hypothesized, no protein playing this role in the ER yet has been identified. Here we provide evidence that AtUTr1, a UDP-galactose/glucose transporter from Arabidopsis thaliana, responds to stimuli that trigger the UPR increasing its expression around 9-fold. The accumulation of AtUTr1 transcript is accompanied by an increase in the level of the AtUTr1 protein. Moreover, subcellular localization studies indicate that AtUTr1 is localized in the ER of plant cells. We reasoned that an impairment in AtUTr1 expression should perturb the calnexin/calreticulin cycle leading to an increase in misfolded protein and triggering the UPR. Toward that end, we analyzed an AtUTr1 insertional mutant and found an up-regulation of the ER chaperones BiP and calnexin, suggesting that these plants may be constitutively activating the UPR. Thus, we propose that in A. thaliana, AtUTr1 is the UDP-glucose transporter involved in quality control in the ER.

AtUTr2 is an Arabidopsis thaliana nucleotide sugar transporter located in the Golgi apparatus capable of transporting UDP-galactose.

The synthesis of noncellulosic polysaccharides and glycoproteins in the plant cell Golgi apparatus requires UDP-galactose as a substrate. We have cloned and characterized a nucleotide sugar transporter from Arabidopsis thaliana (L.) Heynh. named AtUTr2. Expression in tobacco and Saccharomyces cerevisiae and subsequent biochemical characterization indicate that AtUTr2 transports UDP-galactose, but not UDP-glucose, UDP-N-acetyl glucosamine, UDP-xylose, UDP-glucuronic acid, GDP-fucose or GDP-mannose. Experiments expressing an AtUTr2-GFP fusion protein in onion epidermal cells suggest that AtUTr2 is located in the Golgi apparatus. Finally, northern analysis indicates that the AtUTr2 transcript was more abundant in roots and calli although it was also present in other Arabidopsis organs but at lower levels. Therefore, AtUTr2 is a nucleotide sugar transporter capable of transporting UDP-galactose that may play an important role in the synthesis of galactose-containing glycoconjugates in Arabidopsis.

Sortin1-Hypersensitive Mutants Link Vacuolar-Trafficking Defects and Flavonoid Metabolism in Arabidopsis Vegetative Tissues

Sortin1 is a chemical genetic-hit molecule that causes specific mislocalization of plant and yeast-soluble and membrane vacuolar markers. To better understand its mode of action, we designed a Sortin1-hypersensitive screen and identified several Sortin1-hypersensitive and flavonoid-defective mutants. Mechanistically, Sortin1 mimics the effect of the glutathione inhibitor buthionine sulfoximine and alters the vacuolar accumulation of flavonoids, likely blocking their transport through vacuole-localized ABC transporters. Structure-activity relationship studies conducted in Arabidopsis revealed the structural requirements for Sortin1 bioactivity and demonstrated that overlapping Sortin1 substructures can be used to discriminate between vacuolar-flavonoid accumulations and vacuolar-biogenesis defects. We conclude that Sortin1 is a valuable probe for dissecting novel links among flavonoid transport, vacuolar integrity, and the trafficking of vacuolar targeted cargoes in Arabidopsis.

Complex formation regulates the glycosylation of the reversibly glycosylated polypeptide

Reversible glycosylated polypeptides (RGPs) are highly conserved plant-specific proteins, which can perform self-glycosylation. These proteins have been shown essential in plants yet its precise function remains unknown. In order to understand the function of this self-glycosylating polypeptide, it is important to establish what factors are involved in the regulation of the RGP activity. Here we show that incubation at high ionic strength produced a high self-glycosylation level and a high glycosylation reversibility of RGP from Solanum tuberosum L. In contrast, incubation at low ionic strength led to a low level of glycosylation and a low glycosylation reversibility of RGP. The incubation at low ionic strength favored the formation of high molecular weight RGP-containing forms, whereas incubation at high ionic strength produced active RGP with a molecular weight similar to the one expected for the monomer. Our data also showed that glycosylation of RGP, in its monomeric form, was highly reversible, whereas, a low reversibility of the protein glycosylation was observed when RGP was part of high molecular weight structures. In addition, glycosylation of RGP increased the occurrence of non-monomeric RGP-containing forms, suggesting that glycosylation may favor multimer formation. Finally, our results indicated that RGP from Arabidopsis thaliana and Pisum sativum are associated to golgi membranes, as part of protein complexes. A model for the regulation of the RGP activity and its binding to golgi membranes based on the glycosylation of the protein is proposed where the sugars linked to oligomeric form of RGP in the golgi may be transferred to acceptors involved in polysaccharide biosynthesis.

In vivo analysis of the calcium signature in the plant Golgi apparatus reveals unique dynamics

The Golgi apparatus is thought to play a role in calcium homeostasis in plant cells. However, the calcium dynamics in this organelle is unknown in plants. To monitor the [Ca2+]Golgiin vivo, we obtained and analyzed Arabidopsis thaliana plants that express aequorin in the Golgi. Our results show that free [Ca2+] levels in the Golgi are higher than in the cytosol (0.70 μM vs. 0.05 μM, respectively). Stimuli such as cold shock, mechanical stimulation and hyperosmotic stress, led to a transient increase in cytosolic calcium; however, no instant change in the [Ca2+]Golgi concentration was detected. Nevertheless, a delayed increase in the [Ca2+]Golgi up to 2-3 μM was observed. Cyclopiazonic acid and thapsigargin inhibited the stimuli-induced [Ca2+]Golgi increase, suggesting that [Ca2+]Golgi levels are dependent upon the activity of Ca2+-ATPases. Treatment of these plants with the synthetic auxin analog, 2,4-dichlorophenoxy acetic acid (2,4-D), produced a slow decrease of free calcium in the organelle. Our results indicate that the plant Golgi apparatus is not involved in the generation of cytosolic calcium transients and exhibits its own dynamics modulated in part by the activity of Ca2+ pumps and hormones.

Chemical genomics approaches in plant biology.

Chemical genomics (i.e., genomics-scale chemical genetics) approaches are based on the ability of low-molecular-mass molecules to modify biological processes. Such molecules are used to affect the activity of a protein or a pathway in a manner that is tunable and reversible. A major advantage of this approach compared to classical plant genetics is the fact that chemical genomics can address loss-of-function lethality and redundancy. Bioactive chemicals resulting from forward or reverse chemical screens can be useful in understanding and dissecting complex biological processes due to the essentially limitless variation in structure and activities inherent in chemical space. An important aspect of utilizing small molecules effectively is to characterize bioactive chemicals in detail including an understanding of structure activity relationships (SARs) and the identification of active and inactive analogs. Bioactive chemicals can be useful as reagents to probe biological pathways directly. However, the identification of cognate targets and their pathways is also informative and can be achieved by screens for genetic resistance or hypersensitivity in Arabidopsis thaliana or other organisms in which the results can be translated to plants. Here, we describe approaches to screen for bioactive chemicals that affect biological processes in Arabidopsis. We will also discuss considerations for the characterization of bioactive compounds and genetic screens for target identification. This should provide those who are considering this approach some practical knowledge of how to design and establish a chemical genomics screen.

High throughput selection of novel plant growth regulators: Assessing the translatability of small bioactive molecules from Arabidopsis to crops

Plant growth regulators (PGRs) have become an integral part of agricultural and horticultural practices. Accordingly, there is an increased demand for new and cost-effective products. Nevertheless, the market is limited by insufficient innovation. In this context chemical genomics has gained increasing attention as a powerful approach addressing specific traits. Here is described the successful implementation of a highly specific, sensitive and efficient high throughput screening approach using Arabidopsis as a model. Using a combination of techniques, 10,000 diverse compounds were screened and evaluated for several important plant growth traits including root and leaf growth. The phenotype-based selection allowed the compilation of a collection of putative Arabidopsis growth regulators with a broad range of activities and specificities. A subset was selected for evaluating their bioactivity in agronomically valuable plants. Their validation as growth regulators in commercial species such as tomato, lettuce, carrot, maize and turfgrasses reinforced the success of the screening in Arabidopsis and indicated that small molecules activity can be efficiently translated to commercial species. Therefore, the chemical genomics approach in Arabidopsis is a promising field that can be incorporated in PGR discovery programs and has a great potential to develop new products that can be efficiently used in crops.

The Use of Chemical Genomics to Investigate Pathways Intersecting Auxin-Dependent Responses and Endomembrane Trafficking in Arabidopsis Thaliana

Plant endomembrane system is essential for viability and necessary for proper development and signal transduction signal processes. Links between the endomembrane system and auxin signaling have been reported by classical genetics screens. However, the relationship between these processes is not well understood. Chemical genomics is a powerful approach to dissect various processes overcoming lethality and redundancy issues. This approach uses small molecules to modify or disrupt the function of specific proteins and biological processes. We present a screen in Arabidopsis thaliana to identify compound affecting auxin-dependent responses and components of the endomembrane system. A gravitropic-response based screen is performed in Arabidopsis seedlings. The identified gravitropic effectors are tested in terms of auxin responsiveness and their effects on endomembrane compartments. These bioactive compounds will be valuable tools for dissecting endomembrane trafficking and auxin signaling processes.

Phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate 5-kinases 1 and 2 are involved in the regulation of vacuole morphology during Arabidopsis thaliana pollen development

The pollen grains arise after meiosis of pollen mother cells within the anthers. A series of complex structural changes follows, generating mature pollen grains capable of performing the double fertilization of the female megasporophyte. Several signaling molecules, including hormones and lipids, have been involved in the regulation and appropriate control of pollen development. Phosphatidylinositol 4-phophate 5-kinases (PIP5K), which catalyze the biosynthesis of the phosphoinositide PtdIns(4,5)P2, are important for tip polar growth of root hairs and pollen tubes, embryo development, vegetative plant growth, and responses to the environment. Here, we report a role of PIP5Ks during microgametogenesis. PIP5K1 and PIP5K2 are expressed during early stages of pollen development and their transcriptional activity respond to auxin in pollen grains. Early male gametophytic lethality to certain grade was observed in both pip5k1(-/-) and pip5k2(-/-) single mutants. The number of pip5k mutant alleles is directly related to the frequency of aborted pollen grains suggesting the two genes are involved in the same function. Indeed PIP5K1 and PIP5K2 are functionally redundant since homozygous double mutants did not render viable pollen grains. The loss of function of PIP5K1 and PIP5K2results in defects in vacuole morphology in pollen at the later stages and epidermal root cells. Our results show that PIP5K1, PIP5K2 and phosphoinositide signaling are important cues for early developmental stages and vacuole formation during microgametogenesis.