Lori Rhodenizer

THE DESIGN AND DELIVERY OF CREW RESOURCE MANAGEMENT TRAINING: EXPLOITING AVAILABLE RESOURCES

Despite widespread acceptance throughout commercial and military settings, crew resource management (CRM) training programs have not escaped doubts about their effectiveness. The current state of CRM training is an example of how an entire body of pertinent research and development has not had the impact on practice that it could. In this paper we outline additional resources (i.e., principles, information, findings, and guidelines) from the team training and training effectiveness research literatures that can be used to improve the design and delivery of CRM training. Some of the resources discussed include knowledge about training effectiveness, training teamwork-related skills, scenario design, and performance measurement. We conclude with a discussion of emerging resources as well as those that need to be developed. The purpose of this paper is to provide the CRM training developer with better access to resources that can be applied to the design and delivery of CRM training programs.

Effects of Workload and Structure on Team Processes and Performance: Implications for Complex Team Decision Making

Because the naturalistic team decision-making environment is highly complex, there is a need to investigate the performance and process effects of variables that characterize such operational environments. We investigated the effects of team structure and two components of workload (time pressure and resource demand) on team performance and communication over time. Results of the study indicated that time pressure significantly degraded performance relative to resource demand and baseline workload conditions. Although teams exposed to resource demand did not exhibit degraded performance, these teams engaged in fewer statements concerning the availability of team resources than did teams in the other two workload conditions. Results regarding performance and communication changes over time indicated that training interventions might be most effective when imposed during the initial stages of a teams development. We discuss the results in the context of implications for complex decision-making teams.

Team Practice Schedules: What Do We Know?

Given the prevalence of teams in many work environments, it is important to determine the practice schedules that optimize their learning. Thus, the effect of practice schedule on team learning was investigated. Teams practiced under either a massed or distributed practice schedule and were tested under a short-term or longer-term retention interval. These results support the distribution of practice effect for team learning; however, the results suggest that the known benefits for longer-term retention that distributed practice has on individual learning may not apply to learning by 2-person teams under the present conditions.

The Use of Augmentation in Modeling Displays

Behavior modeling has become a popular training technique, particularly for interpersonal and managerial skills. Extensive research has been performed concerning the optimization of behavioral modeling, yet many unanswered questions remain, especially concerning the types of skills that can be effectively trained, recognition of key behaviors, and the use of technology to support recognition of key behaviors. This study investigates the effects of highlighting a display during a behavior modeling training intervention to increase cue salience of key behaviors. The results of this research suggested that the presence of a transcript to supplement modeling displays evoked a less time consuming strategy for performing a radar-based formation identification task. There are still questions concerning the role of highlighting textual information in behavioral modeling displays as an effective method for helping to make target behaviors more salient and for aiding in the recognition of key behaviors.

A Preliminary Evaluation of an Advanced Embedded Training System

Reductions in manning and decreasing budgets are forcing the military to develop more cost-effective training systems. Conducting training on board ships using embedded training systems may accomplish many goals. For instance, embedded training could: 1) decrease the reliance on shore-based school houses that are costly in terms of overhead and manpower; 2) collect performance data to aid instructors in assessing trainee progress and giving feedback; 3) improve training transfer since the training system is embedded within the operational system; and 4) provide mission rehearsal en route to a conflict. To begin to realize the potential benefits of an embedded training system, the Advanced Embedded Training System (AETS) was developed.

A Factor-Analytic Approach to Knowledge Areas Used in Human Factors Positions

In a rapidly changing world, human factors professionals continue to debate how the field can best leverage itself for the future (Howell, 1994). It has been suggested that human factors students and practitioners should broaden their knowledge domain in order to conquer future challenges (Howell, 1994). Preparing our students to face the challenges they will inevitably meet in the workplace involves gathering data concerning what knowledge human factors professionals use on the job, identifying where there may be gaps in the educational curricula, and predicting what areas may become increasingly important in the future. Attempts have been made to gather data concerning the tasks performed and knowledge used by human factors professionals (Van Cott & Huey, 1992). However, recent changes occurring in the field, such as an increased focus on HCI and safety, demand the need to update what is known about the necessary competencies (knowledge, skills, and abilities) needed to perform human factors jobs. In an attempt to gain an understanding of these knowledge requirements, a job analysis approach was used to gain information about the knowledge requirements of human factors professionals.

An Analysis of Critical Incident Reports from a 911 Center

911 services have become a fixture in this country and are found in even the most rural areas. Consequently, it is imperative that 911 operators respond effectively and quickly to the plethora of incoming calls. Typically, the dispatch process is completed successfully (Norberg, 1995). However, recent errors have shed light on a number of problems in this area (US News and World Report, 1996) and suggest the need for enhanced training for these professionals. These operators are often rushed through on-the-job training and thrown into stressful environments characterized by immense workloads and noisy surroundings. They typically receive no formal training in critical elements of the job such as decision-making strategies, team skills, and coordination techniques. Although there is a clear need to improve this situation, scientists have dedicated little study to this topic and can provide little guidance for how best to train these teams.

Massed versus Distributed Team Practice

The current study provides the first investigation of practice schedules on team performance. Research involving practice schedules in individual learning supports the notion that distributed practice schedules result in better long-term retention but appear to impede acquisition (Schmidt & Bjork, 1992). Massed practice schedules, on the other hand, lead to poorer long-term retention but better performance during acquisition. This effect is thought to occur because distributed practice schedules increase information processing activities in individuals by providing practice retrieving information (Schmidt & Bjork, 1992). If the known benefits of distributed practice occur as a consequence of increased information processing activities as suggested by theory, then teams should also display similar learning under the two practice schedules since teams also process information and are subject to encoding, storage, and retrieval phenomenon (Hinsz, Tindale, & Vollrath, 1997). It was hypothesized that teams, like individuals, who learn under a distributed practice schedule would perform poorer than massed practice teams during acquisition, but would perform better during a long-term retention test. However, the results of the current investigation suggest the known benefits that distributed practice has on individual learning may not apply to team learning. Given the increased emphasis of team training in many work environments, it is important to determine which practice schedules optimize team learning since differences may suggest a re-examination of team training methodologies. Results of the current study indicate that more research is needed in this area before recommendations for scheduling team practice sessions can be made.

The Effects of Self-Control and Perceived Control on Team Processes

Although there is an extensive literature regarding the individual and stress, it is critical for researchers to gain an understanding of the impact of stressors on teams due to the increasing number of jobs in both the military and civilian sectors that require groups of individuals to work together effectively in teams. The current study sought to meet this need by investigating the relationship between an individual difference characteristic of team members (self-control), stressor condition, and indices of coping. In particular, it was of interest to determine the effects of self-control and stressor condition, manipulated in terms of perceived stressor control, on coping assessed via self-report and coping communications between team members. Results provided mixed support for the hypothesized relationships between these variables with low self-control teams reporting different coping behaviors than high self-control teams. Results also revealed self-report and communication coping differences as a function of stressor condition. The findings are discussed in terms of possible interventions for teams performing under stress.