Lorna Unwin

Learning as Apprentices in the Contemporary UK Workplace: creating and managing expansive and restrictive participation

Situated learning theory provides a rich conceptual framework for analysing the processes by which apprentices become (full) participants in a community of practice. This article uses case study evidence from the UKs Modern Apprenticeship programme to show how this framework can be developed by identifying features of expansive and restrictive participation which help distinguish between different approaches to apprenticeship. We suggest that three inter-related themes (participation, personal development and institutional arrangements) underpin an expansive/restrictive continuum. The analysis is used to categorise company approaches to apprenticeship according to their expansive and restrictive characteristics, and to illustrate the variable learning opportunities that are being created for apprentices under the Modern Apprenticeship.

Surveying the scene: learning metaphors, survey design and the workplace context

The skills debate in many European countries has for many years been preoccupied with the supply of qualified individuals and participation in training events. However, recent case‐study work suggests that qualifications and training are partial measures of skill development as most learning arises naturally out of the demands and challenges of everyday work experience and interactions with colleagues, clients and customers. This paper argues that the ‘learning as acquisition’ and ‘learning as participation’ metaphors aptly capture these two competing intellectual traditions. The paper outlines an experiment that was designed to give the ‘learning as participation’ metaphor a firmer survey basis than it has hitherto enjoyed. The results highlight the importance of social relationships and mutual support in enhancing individual performance at work, factors which individual acquisition of qualifications and attendance on courses ignores. The paper also confirms the importance of job design in promoting and facilitating learning at work.

Reconceptualising apprenticeship: exploring the relationship between work and learning

Abstract This article explores the concept of apprenticeship as a model for learning at and about work in the late 20th century. The authors propose that social and activity theories of learning can usefully underpin a reconceptualisation of apprenticeship generally, and the recent British initiative the Modern Apprenticeship in particular. Central to this claim are two growing beliefs: first, that the distinction between formal and informal education is unhelpful because it implies the superiority of learning which takes place within educational institutions over, and distinct from, that which occurs in the workplace; second, that a reconceptualised apprenticeship needs to reconcile the previously polarised positions of learner-centred and transmission approaches to pedagogy. The article concludes by outlining a number of features which a contemporary apprenticeship should include and by indicating the extent to which they are featured in the Modern Apprenticeship.

Improving working as learning

Interest in learning at work has captured the attention of many people around the world, often taking centre stage in policy debates about improving economic performance, prosperity and well-being. This book is about the learning that goes on in workplaces ? ranging from offices, factories and shops to gyms, health centres and universities ? and how it can be improved. Such learning includes everyday work activity, on-the-job instruction and off-the-job training events. Improving Working as Learning is the first book to analyze systematically learning at work in different settings by developing and applying a new analytical framework. The Working as Learning Framework connects the particularities of work tasks with the way jobs are organized and the wider pressures and constraints organizations face for survival, growth and development. The authors convincingly demonstrate that the framework offers a sophisticated understanding of how improving the work environment ? both within the workplace and beyond ? can enhance and sustain improvements in learning at work. Each chapter presents evidence ? taken from both private and public sectors ? to illustrate how the Working as Learning Framework provides a means by which employers, researchers and policy-makers can: Improve the conditions for nurturing and sustaining learning at work Build appropriate workforce development plans within given constraints Recognize that the creation and use of knowledge is widely distributed Mobilize existing workplace resources to support learning Enhance and extend our understanding of how workplace learning is shaped by relationships at, and beyond, the workplace This topical book will appeal to an international readership of undergraduate and postgraduate students, vocational teachers and trainers, human resource professionals, policy-makers, and researchers

The significance of individual biography in workplace learning

Abstract In this paper we address a perceived gap in the workplace learning literature, for there is very little writing which successfully integrates the issues of individual learners into predominantly social theories of learning. The paper draws upon data from four linked research projects to address this problem. Following an analysis of the theoretical problems and a possible solution, the paper identifies and discussed four overlapping individual dimensions to workplace learning. They are: workers bring prior knowledge, understanding and skills which contribute to their learning; the habitus of workers influences the ways they co-construct and take advantage of opportunities for learning at work; the dispositions of individual workers contribute to the co-production and reproduction of the workplace culture; and belonging to a workplace community contributes to the developing identity of the workers themselves.

Creating and using knowledge: an analysis of the differentiated nature of workplace learning environments

This paper argues that contemporary workplaces give rise to many different forms of knowledge creation and use, and, as a consequence to different forms of learning and pedagogical approaches. Some of these are utilised to the benefit of the organisation and employees (though not, necessarily, in a reciprocal manner), but others are buried within everyday workplace activity. The discussion builds on earlier work where it was argued that organisations differ in the way they create and manage themselves as learning environments, with some conceptualised as ‘expansive’ in the sense that their employees experience diverse forms of participation and, hence, are more likely to foster learning at work. By studying the way in which work is organised (including the organisation of physical and virtual spaces), this research is suggesting that it is possible to expose some of this learning activity as well as to identify examples where new (or refined) knowledge has been created. In this regard, it is argued that it is important to break down conceptual hierarchies that presuppose that learning is restricted to certain types of employee and/or parts of an organisation and to re-examine knowledge as applied to the workplace. The conclusion focuses on how such an approach, and in particular the use of a productive system analysis, is strengthening the concept of expansive and restrictive learning environments.

Older and wiser? : Workplace learning from the perspective of older employees

This paper explores the (changing) role of older, experienced employees in the workplace in terms of their own needs and opportunities for learning and in the context of changing organizational expectations. It draws on Lave and Wenger’s (1991) theory of situated learning and the notion of ‘learning as participation’ as starting points for examining the types of learning opportunities experienced by older workers. The discussion relates the nature of such opportunities to the changing workplace contexts in which employees are located. The article presents illustrative data from a recent research project that focused on how older experienced workers learn at work in two contrasting organizations. A brief review of literature is provided, which discusses the changing nature of work and the implications for learning. The paper then describes and contrasts the sites from which the data presented in this paper were collected, and the data collection methods that have been utilised. An analysis of the research data is presented and the authors discuss what the evidence reveals about the types of learning opportunities older employees are experiencing and how they make sense of them. The analysis suggests that from the perspective of experienced employees, factors such as organizational culture and history, the way jobs are designed and work is organized, and the way people are managed and their performance is judged, help explain the lived realities of workplace learning and provide messages for enhancing workforce development. The paper argues that contrasting forms of work organization and approaches to managing employees are likely to generate different learning environments and opportunities for workplace learning. It concludes by calling for more empirical research to explore the relationship between work organization and learning and to increase understanding of the implications for what and how different groups of employees learn at work.

Fostering Workplace Learning: Looking through the Lens of Apprenticeship

This article argues that researching the lived reality of apprenticeship in contemporary workplaces provides a useful lens through which workplace learning more generally can be examined. Drawing on data from a 3-year study of the social and pedagogical relationships between apprentices and older workers in the English steel industry, the article proposes that, building on Engeströms work, an ‘expansive’ as opposed to a ‘restrictive’ approach to apprenticeship will not only deliver the broader goals being set for apprenticeship programmes around the world, but will also foster workplace learning. The article offers a critique of Lave and Wengers novice to expert conceptualisation of apprenticeship and, using data from employee learning logs, argues that pedagogical relationships between apprentices and older workers need to be better understood. A conceptual framework for analysing the relationship between organisational culture and history, work organisation, and workplace learning is provided.

The gendered nature of apprenticeship: Employers’ and young people's perspectives

Purpose Gender segregation has been a persistent feature of apprenticeship programmes in countries around the world. In the UK, the Modern Apprenticeship was launched ten years ago as the government?s flagship initiative for training new entrants in a range of occupational sectors. One of its priorities was to increase male and female participation in ?non-traditional? occupations, that is, those normally practiced by just one sex. However, recent figures show that the programme has failed to achieve its aim and this has prompted an investigation by the Equal Opportunities Commission. The research reported in this paper is part of this investigation. Methodology/Approach This paper presents quantitative and qualitative evidence on the attitudes of young people (aged 14 and 15) and employers to non-traditional occupational choices. It also explores the factors affecting the decisions of young people to train in a non-traditional occupation and the recruitment decisions of employers from ?traditional sectors?, such as engineering, the construction trades and childcare. Findings The research provides evidence of the deeply entrenched nature of occupational stereotypes and the psychological and social barriers that have to be overcome if a more evenly balanced workforce is to be created. It also reveals that none of the institutions and organisations which act as gatekeepers between young people and employers is, as yet, taking responsibility for challenging their perceptions and decision-making processes. Policy implications The paper concludes by highlighting the implications of the research findings stakeholders and suggesting an holistic approach to tackling gender segregation.

Constructing learning: adversarial and collaborative working in the British construction industry

This paper examines two competing systems of work organisation in the British construction industry and their consequences for learning. Under the traditional ‘adversarial’ system, conflict, hostility and litigation between contractors are commonplace. Such a climate actively militates against collective learning and knowledge sharing between parties. Conversely, under ‘collaborative working’, contractors share risks, pool knowledge and work together to solve problems at all stages and levels in the productive system – a process conceptualised as ‘knotworking’ by some theorists. The paper argues that such learning theories fail to take adequately into account the heavy hand of history and the importance of understanding the nature of the productive systems in which ‘knotworking’ is expected to take root. Both place limits on making ‘knotworking’ a habitual and commonplace activity in construction.