Lorraine K. Boast

Pre-release hunting training and post-release monitoring are key components in the rehabilitation of orphaned large felids

The rehabilitation of orphaned animals is commonly practiced but rarely scientifically documented. The behavioural development before release (e.g. regarding hunting skills) is particularly important for ensuring animals are self-sustaining after release. We document the rehabilitation and release of three confiscated cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) cubs and one leopard (Panthera pardus) cub, which were taken from the wild in Botswana. The animals were raised with minimal human contact and the development of their hunting skills was observed and assisted by limited pre-release training. After release, all animals were monitored and data showed they successfully hunted, with behavioural patterns similar to wild conspecifics. All established stable home ranges at the release site. Home ranges of the cheetahs ranged from 44 to 121 km2, travelling primarily during the early morning and evening, ranging from 4.5 to 9.4 km/day. While the leopard survived and probably reproduced within a stable home range (449 km2), all three cheetahs were shot within 7 months of release. Therefore, although orphaned large felids can successfully hunt after release using appropriate rehabilitation techniques, they face the same human—carnivore conflicts of their wild counterparts. Our study demonstrates the indispensable but commonly neglected need for post-release monitoring in wildlife rehabilitation.

Density of Large Predators on Commercial Farmland in Ghanzi, Botswana

Accurate estimates of predator densities are important for the conservation management of large predator populations. Predator densities outside of protected areas are often understudied and management decisions are based on assumptions of predator numbers. This study conducted three spoor surveys on commercial farmland in Botswana to estimate large predator densities. Brown hyaenas (Hyaena brunnea) were found to occur evenly across both cattle and game farms at higher densities than previously assumed. Cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) and leopards (Panthera pardus) were more commonly located on game ranches, at or below population density assumptions. This study demonstrated the importance but difficulties of conducting predator surveys on farmland, where study animals are often at risk of persecution by landowners, due to the perceived or real threat predators may pose to livestock and stocked game.

Relative availability of natural prey versus livestock predicts landscape suitability for cheetahs Acinonyx jubatus in Botswana

Prey availability and human-carnivore conflict are strong determinants that govern the spatial distribution and abundance of large carnivore species and determine the suitability of areas for their conservation. For wide-ranging large carnivores such as cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus), additional conservation areas beyond protected area boundaries are crucial to effectively conserve them both inside and outside protected areas. Although cheetahs prefer preying on wild prey, they also cause conflict with people by predating on especially small livestock. We investigated whether the distribution of cheetahs’ preferred prey and small livestock biomass could be used to explore the potential suitability of agricultural areas in Botswana for the long-term persistence of its cheetah population. We found it gave a good point of departure for identifying priority areas for land management, the threat to connectivity between cheetah populations, and areas where the reduction and mitigation of human-cheetah conflict is critical. Our analysis showed the existence of a wide prey base for cheetahs across large parts of Botswana’s agricultural areas, which provide additional large areas with high conservation potential. Twenty percent of wild prey biomass appears to be the critical point to distinguish between high and low probable levels of human-cheetah conflict. We identified focal areas in the agricultural zones where restoring wild prey numbers in concurrence with effective human-cheetah conflict mitigation efforts are the most immediate conservation strategies needed to maintain Botswana’s still large and contiguous cheetah population.

Regional variation in body size of the cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus)

Abstract Body size affects almost every aspect of the biology of a species, with considerable intraspecific variation. Cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) reportedly vary in body size across their geographical range. However, because morphometric measurements were not taken in a standardized manner, it is impossible to rule out differences in measurement protocols as the cause. Our study differed from previous ones in that we made use of a standardized methodology for taking morphometric measurements in cheetahs. Free-ranging cheetahs in Namibia were shorter (3.5–4.1%) and slimmer (4.0–7.0%) than those in neighboring Botswana. Cheetah density was more than 3 times higher and home-range sizes were more than 3 times smaller in Botswana compared to Namibia. This suggests that variation in resource availability may be the main driver of the fine-scale spatial differences in morphometric measurements. Overall, our study promotes the use of standardized protocols for measuring morphological traits in free-ranging animals.

Translocation of problem predators: is it an effective way to mitigate conflict between farmers and cheetahs Acinonyx jubatus in Botswana?

The translocation of predators believed to be preying on livestock is often perceived as a more humane and desirable method of removal than lethal control. However, the survival of translocated predators and the effectiveness of translocation in reducing conflict at the removal site are often not documented. We assessed farmers’ perceptions of the efficacy of translocation at reducing livestock and game-stock losses in Botswana, and determined the post-release survival of translocated cheetahs Acinonyx jubatus , the most threatened large felid in Africa. Eighteen percent of translocated cheetahs survived 1 year (n = 11). The low survival rate was thought to be related to homing behaviour and wide-ranging movements post release. The majority of farmers who had translocated a problem predator from their farm within the 12 months prior to the study perceived that the translocation was ineffective at reducing stock losses, both in the short (59.1%) and long term (63.6%, n = 22). At least one of the monitored cheetahs continued to predate livestock after release. In light of the low survival, significant financial costs and failure to reduce stock losses, we conclude that the translocation of problem cheetahs in Botswana should no longer be conducted, and that conflict mitigation methods should focus on techniques that promote coexistence of predators and humans.

Ecology of Free-Ranging Cheetahs

Considerable research has been conducted on cheetah ecology. Cheetahs can exist in a wide variety of habitats from thick scrub to open grassland, and habitat selection is based on a variety of factors, including visibility, prey density, and avoidance of competitively superior predators. Cheetahs naturally occur at low densities and require a prey base of small to medium-sized ungulates that can be consumed rapidly, minimizing the risks for cheetahs of being detected by larger carnivores that can usurp their kills. Cheetahs exhibit wide ranging movements and large home ranges—over 2000 km 2 in some areas. Reported densities generally range from 0.3 to 3.0 adult cheetahs per 100 km 2 . The species distribution, density, and activity patterns are impacted by human activities and the presence of larger carnivores. Understanding cheetah habitat requirements and movement ecology, especially pertaining to long-distance movements, will become progressively more important as the cheetah’s range becomes increasingly fragmented.

Cheetah Translocation and Reintroduction Programs: Past, Present, and Future

Abstract As cheetah populations continue to decline and cheetah habitat becomes increasingly fragmented, the need for cheetah translocation and reintroduction programs becomes stronger. The majority of translocations into free-ranging environments have been into areas with existing cheetah populations, through which valuable knowledge to guide future reintroductions has been gained. A stable, viable metapopulation of cheetahs has also been established on fenced state owned and private game reserves in South Africa through reintroduction. Potential reintroduction sites in Asia and Africa have been identified by conservationists but require a full assessment of their suitability before cheetahs can be released. Protecting existing cheetah populations, safeguarding their habitat, and securing new areas within the species’ former range, for recolonization and potentially for reintroduction, remain the priority for the conservation of cheetahs.

What Does the Future Hold for the Cheetah

With only an estimated 7100 free-ranging adult and adolescent individuals left worldwide, the cheetah’s ( Acinonyx jubatus ) survival requires the scaling up of conservation action. This chapter highlights the threats presented in this book and summarizes the actions being undertaken by cheetah conservationists, non-government organizations, and governments worldwide to prevent the extinction of the cheetah. As the cheetah is a particularly wide-ranging species, cheetah conservation requires a landscape level and integrated approach, including education and awareness-raising supported by ongoing research, and collaboration and communication with all stakeholders. Current conservation strategies need financial commitment and new methods of conflict mitigation and species management. Working both within and outside of protected areas has been highlighted as a critical need for species’ survival. With a growing human population, pressures on resources needed for cheetah survival are increasing, therefore conservation actions need to be scaled up without delay and the wider international community must take a greater responsibility for their role in cheetah conservation.

Pets and Pelts: Understanding and Combating Poaching and Trafficking in Cheetahs

It is estimated that, between November 2005 and December 2015, over 1000 cheetahs ( Acinonyx jubatus ) have been removed from the wild for the illegal pet trade, or killed for their pelts and other body parts for clothing, ornaments, traditional ceremonies, and folk remedies. The main problem is the smuggling of young cheetah cubs snatched from their mothers from the Horn of Africa, through Yemen, to the wealthy countries of the Arabian Peninsula, where ownership of pet cheetahs is significant, as evidenced by thousands of images on social media. International efforts are underway to improve enforcement and education to reduce both demand and supply. Cheetahs are just one of many species poached or trafficked, but as a species with low genetic diversity and low numbers, illegal trade represents a significant threat to their survival. Consequently, it is crucial that all governments, international enforcement bodies, and non-governmental organizations join forces and resources to fight the major threat that trafficking poses to cheetah conservation.

Improved and Alternative Livelihoods: Links Between Poverty Alleviation, Biodiversity, and Cheetah Conservation

Human livelihoods have shifted from dependency on the lands’ natural resources to exploitation of resources through increased human populations and intensive farming. Particularly in rural communities, the link between biodiversity and traditional livelihoods was rooted in cultural values that have now been largely lost. Land-use changes often cause increased conflict between wildlife and humans, negatively affecting both human livelihoods and existence of predators, such as the cheetah. Improved and alternative livelihood programs have been instigated by cheetah conservation organizations, with the aim to alleviate poverty, in turn strengthening the links between human livelihood and natural resource management, to increase biodiversity and encourage coexistence with predators. Programs are often small-scale but require innovative businesses planning, implementation, and monitoring to ensure long-term success.