Lorraine T. Dorfman

INTERGENERATIONAL SERVICE-LEARNING IN FIVE COHORTS OF STUDENTS: IS ATTITUDE CHANGE ROBUST?

Service-learning evaluation rarely compares different cohorts of students, so it is difficult to determine whether the findings are reliable. This study compared attitudinal change in five successive cohorts of intergenerational service-learning students (n = 59) enrolled in an introductory gerontology course at a major Midwestern university. Quantitative and qualitative data were used to investigate the attitudes of students. Results indicated that only Cohorts 1 and 2 showed significant positive change at posttest in overall attitude toward the elderly. Additionally, only Cohort 1 showed significant positive change at posttest in overall attitude toward working with elders and on an “I fear getting really old” item. Content analysis of open-ended questions indicated that Cohort 1 had the highest proportion of students with positive attitudes toward their own aging at the end of the service-learning. Possible explanations for these findings and implications for evaluation of intergenerational service-learning programs are discussed.

Retirement Preparation and Retirement Satisfaction in the Rural Elderly

This study investigated preparation for retirement in the rural elderly and the relationship between that preparation and retirement satisfaction. A number of anticipatory socialization for retirement mechanisms were investigated including planning for retirement, preretirement education, gradual versus immediate retirement, discussion of retirement with others, and exposure to written information and mass media programs about retirement. Respondents were 252 men and 199 women who participated in the retirement substudy of an 8-year epidemiological investigation of persons aged 65 and over in two rural Iowa counties. Planning for retirement, reading about retirement, and exposure to radio or television programs about retirement were significant correlates of retirement satisfaction for both sexes. Gradual retirement was a significant correlate of retirement satisfaction for males only. After health, planning for retirement was the second strongest predictor of retirement satisfaction for males.

Wife Caregivers of Frail Elderly Veterans: Correlates of Caregiver Satisfaction and Caregiver Strain

This study investigated correlates of satisfaction and strain in 80 wife caregivers of frail elderly veterans. The study focused on the background and context of stress, stressors, and cognitive appraisal of self-efficacy and social/institutional support. Support from spouse was the strongest positive predictor of satisfaction with caregiving and the strongest negative predictor of caregiver strain. Confidence in ability to manage caregiving tasks (self-efficacy) was the strongest positive predictor of caregiver life satisfaction. During the next two decades, older veterans will represent a large and growing proportion of all males aged 65 and older. Two out of three of all males aged 65 and older will be eligible for Department of Veterans Affairs medical care by the year 2000 (Weiler, 1988). The population served by Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Centers (VAMCs), the largest multihospital system in the United States, is likely to be older, of lower than average income, and in need of more care and supportive services than the general population (Department of Veteran Affairs, 1992; Weiler, 1988; Wilson, Moore, Rubin, & Bartels, 1990). Yet, relatively little research has focused on the caregivers of frail elderly veterans and hardly any has focused on wife caregivers (Toseland, Labrecque, Goebel, & Whitney, 1992), who are the most frequent providers of care (Horowitz, 1985; Soldo & Myllyluoma, 1983; Stoller & Earl, 1983). Wives caring for chronically ill or disabled husbands are at particular risk for physical, emotional, and financial strain. Caregiving wives live in the same household as the care receiver, tend to be older and in poorer health than their noncaregiving counterparts, and generally do not have a child living at home to help (Cantor, 1983; George & Gwyther, 1986; Hoyert & Seltzer, 1992; Noelker & Wallace, 1985). Caregiving wives have been identified as that group of caregivers who are most burdened by the rigors of providing care (Hoyert & Seltzer, 1992; Noelker & Wallace, 1985; Pruchno & Resch, 1989; Toseland et al., 1992). Wives caring for frail elderly veterans may be particularly burdened by providing care because functionally disabled elderly veterans receive less community-based long-term care services than does the rest of the elderly population; furthermore, only a small minority of those veterans receives any paid home care (Department of Veterans Affairs, 1992). The situation and experiences of wives caring for frail elderly veterans may, therefore, be different from those of other wife caregivers and, thus, merit empirical investigation. In making recommendations for setting the agenda for the White House Conference on Aging, Pillemer, Moen, Krout, and Robison (1995) noted the importance of considering the needs of specific subpopulations of the elderly, including veterans. Less attention has been given in the literature to the satisfactions of caregiving than to the strains of caregiving. Some of the literature has suggested that caregivers may experience satisfactions or rewards in providing care (Farran, Keane-Hagerty, Salloway, Kupferer, & Wilken, 1991; Given & Given, 1990; Horowitz, 1985; Kramer, 1993). Personal satisfaction may be derived from providing help to an ill or disabled spouse, from meeting the challenges of caregiving, or from gaining respect or recognition from others (Brody, 1985; Chenoweth & Spencer, 1986; Gatz, Bengston, & Blum, 1990; Motenko, 1989). The purpose of the present study was to investigate factors related to satisfaction and strain in wife caregivers of frail elderly veterans. No previous research has investigated correlates of both satisfaction and strain among wives caring for frail elderly veterans in the same study. By examining satisfaction and strain, the present study was able to assess positive as well as negative outcomes of the caregiving experience. In this study, satisfaction was conceptualized as a subjective sense of well-being (Campbell, Converse, & Rodgers, 1976) and strain as a perception of enduring problems that are a threat to ones wellbeing (Pearlin & Schooler, 1978; Robinson, 1983). …

Retirement satisfaction in the rural elderly.

This study investigated factors related to retirement satisfaction in a Midwestern rural population. Four major sets of variables were investigated: personal background factors; socialization for retirement; reasons for retirement; and social integration. Multiple regression showed that the most important predictors of retirement satisfaction were (1) quality of relationship and frequency of aid from confidants and relatives; (2) involvement in organizations; (3) health; and (4) financial status.

ACADEMICS AND THE TRANSITION TO RETIREMENT

The purposes of this study were (a) to provide descriptive information on the transition of academics to retirement and (b) to compare factors related to satisfaction of academics before and after retirement. One hundred four professors who were retiring from a major state university were interviewed several months before retirement and 1 year after retirement. Correlational analysis showed that health, rated importance of teaching, research and consulting roles, and rated importance of leisure activities were positively related to satisfaction both before and in retirement. Perceived financial adequacy, number of hours per week spent in consulting, and participation in unpaid, voluntary activities were positively related to satisfaction in retirement only. Multiple regression results showed that self‐perceived health was the most consistent predictor of satisfaction before retirement, whereas rated importance of research or other creative work was the most consistent predictor of satisfaction in retirement.

Egalitarianism in Retired Rural Couples: Household Tasks, Decision Making, and Leisure Activities.

This study investigated conjugal role organization in retired rural couples. Three major aspects of the conjugal relationship were examined: division of household tasks, decision-making patterns, and leisure activities shared by the couple. Interviews were conducted with 149 couples who participated in the retirement substudy of an 8-year epidemiological investigation of two rural counties in Iowa. Results showed that rural couples: (a) exhibited a traditional, gender-differentiated division of household tasks, but that household role segregation decreased significantly after retirement; (b) made a majority of decisions jointly during retirement, with joint decision making increasing significantly after retirement; (c) participated in a large number of joint leisure activities during retirement.

STAYERS AND LEAVERS: PROFESSORS IN AN ERA OF NO MANDATORY RETIREMENT

This interview study uses both quantitative and qualitative data to: (1) compare personal and professional characteristics of professors who continue to work in their career jobs after age 70 with professors of the same age who retire; (2) explore reasons professors give for continuing to work or to retire; and (3) compare satisfaction levels of the employed and retired groups. Respondents were 17 employed (response rate 94%)and 54 retired (response rate 83%) professors aged 70-74 from a major research university, the type of institution most likely to be impacted by the end of mandatory retirement (Hammond & Morgan, 1991). Results indicated that employed professors were (1) less likely to be married or to have children and grandchildren and (2) were more strongly oriented to the professional role and professional ties outside the university than were their retired counterparts. Employed professors said they continued to work mainly because they enjoyed it, whereas retired professors said they retired because they wanted to do other things, felt it was time to retire, or had workplace concerns. Both faculty groups showed high levels of life satisfaction.

Still Working after Age 70: Older Professors in Academe.

The purpose of this interview study was to examine the perceptions and experiences of tenured university professors who continue to work in their career jobs after age 70. The study utilized the case study method to let professors describe in their own voices the personal, professional, and institutional factors in their decision to keep working beyond the conventional retirement age and their plans for the future. The population under investigation was all tenured professors aged 70-74 at a major public research university, the institutions most likely to be impacted by the end of mandatory retirement (Hammond & Morgan, 1991). Content analysis of the interview tapes revealed the following themes: most professors continued to work because they enjoyed it, or felt that it was important to continue their work, perceived the overall atmosphere in their department and the university as positive, felt little institutional pressure to retire, and had no plans to retire. Economic factors played a relatively small role in continuing to work.

Leisure and the Retired Professor: Occupation Matters.

ABSTRACT Little attention has been given to the leisure activities of retired professors, whose activity patterns in retirement may be different from those of other occupational groups because of their lifetime commitment to work. This interview study uses both quantitative and qualitative data to investigate: (a) the leisure and professional activities of retired professors; (b) the anticipated leisure activities of older employed professors; and (c) the relationship between sociodemographic factors and leisure activities of professors in retirement. Respondents were 54 retired (response rate 83%) and 17 employed (response rate 94%) professors aged 70–74 from a major research university. Content analysis of the tape-recorded open-ended questions indicated that volunteer activity, travel, exercise or sports, and work around the house or garden were the most commonly described leisure activities of retirees. A large majority of retirees (70%) also continued professional activities. Travel and exercise or sports were the most frequently planned activity for employed respondents. Correlational analysis revealed little relationship between sociodemographic factors and leisure activities in retirement. Implications for retirement education and leisure programming are discussed.

Characteristics of Nursing Home Social Services Directors: How Common is a Degree in Social Work?

PURPOSE To report the percentage of nursing homes whose social services director has a degree in social work, to report the characteristics of social service directors, and to describe the characteristics of nursing homes most likely to employ a degreed social worker. These questions are important because social workers are core members of the interdisciplinary team in nursing homes and have responsibilities for the psychosocial well-being of residents. DESIGN AND METHODS Cross-sectional nationally representative survey of 1071 social service directors employed in US nursing homes certified to receive Medicare and/or Medicaid. RESULTS Most nursing homes do employ at least one (and typically only one) social service staff person. Most are employed full-time and half have a degree in social work. About 20% do not have a college degree. The vast majority of social service directors are white and are women. Close to 40% are licensed social workers. Full-time salaries varies enormously from less than