Loveday Penn-Kekana

Gender inequalities, intimate partner violence and HIV preventive practices: findings of a South African cross-sectional study

The aim of the paper is to investigate associations between a range of markers of gender inequity, including financial, psychological and physical violence, and two proximal practices in HIV prevention, namely discussion of HIV between partners and the woman suggesting condom use. The paper presents an analysis of data from a cross-sectional study of a representative sample of women from three South African Provinces which was primarily undertaken as an epidemiological study of gender-based violence. A multi-stage sampling design was used with clusters sampled with probability proportional to number of households. Households were randomly selected from within clusters. One randomly selected woman aged 18-49 years was interviewed in each selected home. One thousand three hundred and six women were interviewed (90.3% of eligible women). One thousand one hundred sixty four women had a partner in the previous year and were asked questions related to HIV prevention and gender inequalities in the relationship. The results indicate that discussion of HIV was significantly positively associated with education, living in Mpumalanga Province, the man being a migrant, the woman having multiple partners in the past year and having no confidante. It was significantly negatively associated with living in the Northern Province, the relationship being poor and there being a substantial age difference between partners. The woman suggesting condom use was significantly positively associated with her education, her having multiple partners, domestic violence prior to the past year and financial abuse. It was negatively associated with the relationship being poor. We conclude that this suggests that some indicators of gender inequalities are significantly associated with discussion of HIV and condom use but the direction of association found was both positive and negative. This highlights the need for a more nuanced understanding of gender inequalities and their relationship to HIV risk. Suggestions for key research questions are made.

Good Health at Low Cost 25 years on: lessons for the future of health systems strengthening

In 1985, the Rockefeller Foundation published Good health at low cost to discuss why some countries or regions achieve better health and social outcomes than do others at a similar level of income and to show the role of political will and socially progressive policies. 25 years on, the Good Health at Low Cost project revisited these places but looked anew at Bangladesh, Ethiopia, Kyrgyzstan, Thailand, and the Indian state of Tamil Nadu, which have all either achieved substantial improvements in health or access to services or implemented innovative health policies relative to their neighbours. A series of comparative case studies (2009-11) looked at how and why each region accomplished these changes. Attributes of success included good governance and political commitment, effective bureaucracies that preserve institutional memory and can learn from experience, and the ability to innovate and adapt to resource limitations. Furthermore, the capacity to respond to population needs and build resilience into health systems in the face of political unrest, economic crises, and natural disasters was important. Transport infrastructure, female empowerment, and education also played a part. Health systems are complex and no simple recipe exists for success. Yet in the countries and regions studied, progress has been assisted by institutional stability, with continuity of reforms despite political and economic turmoil, learning lessons from experience, seizing windows of opportunity, and ensuring sensitivity to context. These experiences show that improvements in health can still be achieved in countries with relatively few resources, though strategic investment is necessary to address new challenges such as complex chronic diseases and growing population expectations.

Exploring inequalities in access to and use of maternal health services in South Africa

BackgroundSouth Africa’s maternal mortality rate (625 deaths/100,000 live births) is high for a middle-income country, although over 90% of pregnant women utilize maternal health services. Alongside HIV/AIDS, barriers to Comprehensive Emergency Obstetric Care currently impede the country’s Millenium Development Goals (MDGs) of reducing child mortality and improving maternal health. While health system barriers to obstetric care have been well documented, “patient-oriented” barriers have been neglected. This article explores affordability, availability and acceptability barriers to obstetric care in South Africa from the perspectives of women who had recently used, or attempted to use, these services.MethodsA mixed-method study design combined 1,231 quantitative exit interviews with sixteen qualitative in-depth interviews with women (over 18) in two urban and two rural health sub-districts in South Africa. Between June 2008 and September 2009, information was collected on use of, and access to, obstetric services, and socioeconomic and demographic details. Regression analysis was used to test associations between descriptors of the affordability, availability and acceptability of services, and demographic and socioeconomic predictor variables. Qualitative interviews were coded deductively and inductively using ATLAS ti.6. Quantitative and qualitative data were integrated into an analysis of access to obstetric services and related barriers.ResultsAccess to obstetric services was impeded by affordability, availability and acceptability barriers. These were unequally distributed, with differences between socioeconomic groups and geographic areas being most important. Rural women faced the greatest barriers, including longest travel times, highest costs associated with delivery, and lowest levels of service acceptability, relative to urban residents. Negative provider-patient interactions, including staff inattentiveness, turning away women in early-labour, shouting at patients, and insensitivity towards those who had experienced stillbirths, also inhibited access and compromised quality of care.ConclusionsTo move towards achieving its MDGs, South Africa cannot just focus on increasing levels of obstetric coverage, but must systematically address the access constraints facing women during pregnancy and delivery. More needs to be done to respond to these “patient-oriented” barriers by improving how and where services are provided, particularly in rural areas and for poor women, as well as altering the attitudes and actions of health care providers.

Women's experiences of and preferences for services after rape in South Africa: interview study

Abstract Objectives To describe aspects of delivery of health services after rape, including trade-offs, that would most influence choice of service, and to compare views of patients who had used such services with views of members of the community who may be future users or may have experienced barriers to service use. Design Discrete choice analysis of stated preferences with interviews. Attributes included travel time to the service, availability of HIV prophylaxis, number of returns to the hospital, medical examination, and counselling skills and attitude of the provider. Setting One rural and one urban site in South Africa. Participants 319 women: 155 who had been raped and four carers recruited through health facilities and 160 comparable women recruited from the community. Of these, 156 were from an urban site and 163 from a rural site. Main outcome measures Strength of preferences over a range of attributes through the estimation of a benefit function through random effects probit modelling. Results Factors such as the availability of prophylactic treatment for HIV infection and having a sensitive healthcare provider who could provide counselling are more important in womens decisions to seek care after rape than the travel time necessary to access those services. Conclusion Our findings support the need for holistic rape services.

Transactional relationships and sex with a woman in prostitution: prevalence and patterns in a representative sample of South African men

BackgroundSex motivated by economic exchange is a public health concern as a driver of the Sub-Saharan African HIV epidemic. We describe patterns of engagement in transactional sexual relationships and sex with women in prostitution of South African men, and suggest interpretations that advance our understanding of the phenomenon.MethodsCross-sectional study with a randomly-selected sample of 1645 sexually active men aged 18–49 years who completed interviews in a household study and were asked whether they had had sex with a woman in prostitution, or had had a relationship or sex they took to be motivated by the expectation of material gain (transactional sex).Results18% of men had ever had sex with a woman in prostitution, 66% at least one type of transactional sexual relationship, only 30% of men had done neither. Most men had had a transactional relationship/sex with a main partner (58% of all men), 42% with a concurrent partner (or makhwapheni) and 44% with a once off partner, and there was almost no difference in reports of what was provided to women of different partner types. The majority of men distinguished the two types of sexual relationships and even among men who had once-off transactional sex and gave cash (n = 314), few (34%) reported that they had had sex with a ‘prostitute’. Transactional sex was more common among men aged 25–34 years, less educated men and low income earners rather than those with none or higher income. Having had sex with a woman in prostitution varied little between social and demographic categories, but was less common among the unwaged or very low earners.ConclusionsThe notion of ‘transactional sex’ developed through research with women does not translate easily to men. Many perceive expectations that they fulfil a provider role, with quid pro quo entitlement to sex. Men distinguished these circumstances of sex from having sex with a woman in prostitution. Whilst there may be similarities, when viewed relationally, these are quite distinct practices. Conflating them is sociologically inappropriate. Efforts to work with men to reduce transactional sex should focus on addressing sexual entitlement and promoting gender inequity.

The virgin cleansing myth: cases of child rape are not exotic.

This letter to the editor disputes the suggestion that the myth of having sex with a virgin will cure an HIV-1 infected man is an important cause of child rape. There is no evidence overall that infant rapes are increasing in South Africa nor that rape perpetrators know that they have HIV-1 infection. Perhaps the perception of a rising rate may be related to the media giving a few cases prominence. The root of the problem of infant rape should be seen as part of the spectrum of sexual violence against women and girls. Thus community definitions of rape need to be reframed so that all acts of coercive sex are viewed as rape irrespective of the circumstances and develop an environment in which men are deterred from rape through threat of punishment.

Improving Maternal Health: Getting What Works To Happen

Maternal mortality reduction in many countries is unlikely despite the availability of inexpensive, efficacious interventions that are part of official policy. This article explores the reasons why, based on research on maternity services in Bangladesh, Russia, South Africa and Uganda. A simple dynamic responses model shows that the key to understanding challenges in implementation lies in the reflexive, complex and dynamic responses of health workers and community members to policies and programmes. These responses are “dynamic” in that they arise due to forces from within and outside the system, and in turn exert forces of their own. They result in the difference between the health system that is envisaged in policy, and what is implemented by health workers and experienced by users. Programmes aiming to improve maternal health are not only technical but also social interventions that need to be evaluated as such, using methodologies that have been developed for evaluating complex social interventions whose aim is to bring about change. The components of effective programmes have been defined globally. However, in getting what works to happen, context matters. Thus, technical advisors need to give “advice” more circumspectly, local programme managers must be capacitated to make programme-improving adjustments continuously, and the detail related to process, not just outcomes, must be documented in evaluations. Résumé Une réduction du taux de mortalité maternelle est improbable dans beaucoup de pays, malgré la disponibilité d’interventions efficaces et peu coûteuses incluses dans la politique officielle. Cet article cherche à comprendre pourquoi, avec des recherches en Afrique du Sud, au Bangladesh, en Fédération de Russie et en Ouganda. Un modèle simple de réponses dynamiques montre que pour comprendre les problèmes de mise en oeuvre, il faut étudier les réponses dynamiques, complexes et réfléchies des agents de santé et des membres de la communauté aux politiques et programmes. Ces réponses sont « dynamiques » en cela qu’elles sont créées par des forces à l’intérieur et à l’extérieur du système, et qu’elles exercent à leur tour une force. Leur résultat est la différence entre le système de santé envisagé dans la politique et celui qui est appliqué par les agents de santé et que connaissent les usagers. Les programmes d’amélioration de la santé maternelle sont des interventions techniques, mais aussi sociales qui doivent être évaluées comme telles, avec des méthodologies élaborées pour jauger des interventions sociales complexes destinées à déclencher un changement. Les composantes de programmes opérants ont été définies au niveau international. Néanmoins, le contexte est important pour appliquer des mesures efficaces. Les conseillers techniques doivent donc « conseiller » avec plus de circonspection, il faut que les directeurs de programmes locaux soient capables d’ajuster constamment les programmes pour les améliorer et que les évaluations informent des détails liés au processus, et non pas seulement des résultats. Resumen En muchos países, resulta improbable disminuir la tasa de mortalidad materna, pese a la disponibilidad de intervenciones eficaces y poco costosas que son parte de la política oficial. En este artículo se explora el porqué, a raíz de investigaciones sobre los servicios de maternidad en Bangladesh, Rusia, Sudáfrica y Uganda. Un simple modelo de respuestas dinámicas muestra que la clave para entender los retos de la implementación radica en las respuestas reflexivas, complejas y dinámicas de los trabajadores de la salud y miembros de la comunidad a las políticas y los programas. Estas respuestas son “dinámicas” en el sentido de que emergen debido a fuerzas dentro y fuera del sistema, y, a su vez emplean sus propias fuerzas. Tienen como resultado la diferencia entre el sistema de salud que es concebido en la política, y lo que es puesto en práctica por los trabajadores de la salud y experimentado por las usuarias. Los programas que procuran mejorar la salud materna no son sólo técnicos sino también intervenciones sociales que deben ser evaluadas como tal, utilizando metodologías que fueron creadas para evaluar intervenciones sociales complejas cuyo objetivo es promover cambios. Los elementos de los programas eficaces fueron definidos mundialmente. Sin embargo, para lograr que suceda lo que funciona, importa el contexto. Por tanto, los asesores técnicos deben dar “consejos” con más cautela, los administradores de programas locales deben recibir capacitación para realizar ajustes que mejoren los programas continuamente, y el detalle relacionado con el proceso, y no sólo los resultados, debe documentarse en las evaluaciones.

Men, Prostitution and the Provider Role: Understanding the Intersections of Economic Exchange, Sex, Crime and Violence in South Africa

Background South African policy makers are reviewing legislation of prostitution, concerned that criminalisation hampers HIV prevention. They seek to understand the relationship between transactional sex, prostitution, and the nature of the involved men. Methods 1645 randomly-selected adult South African men participated in a household study, disclosing whether they had sex with a woman in prostitution or had had a provider relationship (or sex), participation in crime and violence and completing psychological measures. These became outcomes in multivariable regression models, where the former were exposure variables. Results 51% of men had had a provider relationship and expected sex in return, 3% had had sex with a woman in prostitution, 15% men had done both of these and 31% neither. Provider role men, and those who had just had sex with a woman in prostitution, were socially conservative and quite violent. Yet the men who had done both (75% of those having sex with a woman in prostitution) were significantly more misogynist, highly scoring on dimensions of psychopathy, more sexually and physically violent to women, and extensively engaged in crime. They had often bullied at school, suggesting that this instrumental, self-seeking masculinity was manifest in childhood. The men who had not engaged in sex for economic exchange expressed a much less violent, more law abiding and gender equitable masculinity; challenging assumptions about the inevitability of intersections of age, poverty, crime and misogyny. Conclusions Provider role relationships (or sex) are normative for low income men, but not having sex with a woman in prostitution. Men who do the latter operate extensively outside the law and their violence poses a substantial threat to women. Those drafting legislation and policy on the sex industry in South Africa need to distinguish between these two groups to avoid criminalising the normal, and consider measures to protect women.

Gender biases and discrimination: a review of health care interpersonal interactions.

Abstract A good interpersonal relationship between a patient and provider, as characterized by mutual respect, openness, and a balance in their respective roles in decision-making, is an important marker of quality of care. This review is undertaken from a gender and health equity perspective and illustrates that gender biases and discrimination occur at many levels in the healthcare delivery environment, and affects the patient–provider interaction which can result in health inequities affecting individual health seeking behaviour, access to good quality healthcare, and, ultimately, health outcomes. Interventions will have to be introduced at multiple levels, from health system legislation and policy and gender sensitive training to the development of women and men centred services and health literacy programmes.

Mistreatment of women in childbirth: time for action on this important dimension of violence against women

The mistreatment of women in childbirth has been documented by researchers for over three decades in all global regions. The scale of the problem is indicated by a systematic review conducted by Meghan Bohren and colleagues which provides a foundation from which a typology of violence can be developed and used as a basis for developing measurement instruments and tools. This is a valuable complement to other work that is currently underway in this area. A multicountry study on the mistreatment of women during childbirth could be extremely valuable in generating comparable information on prevalence risk groups and facilities and the health consequences (physical and mental including future health-seeking practices and expectations). It would provide the foundation needed for developing health policy monitoring its impact and advocating for proper resources. (Excerpt)