Lucy Green

Musical Meaning and Social Reproduction: A case for retrieving autonomy

In this article I propose a theory of musical meaning and experience which takes into consideration the dialectical relationship between musical text and context, and which is flexible enough to apply to a range of musical styles. Through this theory I examine the roles played by the school music classroom which, despite the multiplicity of musical styles now incorporated into schooling, continues to contribute to the reproduction of existing social relations in the wider society. I consider how music itself can be understood to construct and communicate apparent ‘truths’ about ourselves and society and what role the classroom plays in perpetuating those ‘truths’. Finally I argue for a partial but necessary reinstatement of the much‐maligned notion of musical autonomy as a critical moment in any attempt to change things.

Research in the Sociology of Music Education: some introductory concepts

ABSTRACT This article presents some key sociological concepts, and examines how such concepts can operate within the sociology of music, focusing on two main areas. One area concerns the organisation of musical activities—the production, distribution and reception of music by a variety of social groups; the other area involves the social construction of musical meaning—what music means, how it takes on its meanings and how those meanings are reproduced, contested and changed. The article then moves on to examine ways in which the issues, principles and procedures identified can inform research in the sociology of music education. Some illustrative examples of existing research are given, and some further topics inviting sociological methodology are suggested.

Mapping Music Education Research in the UK

Over the past 25 years there has been an increasing and worldwide research interest in music education, embracing a range of disciplines and perspectives. As well as particular research foci on the nature of curricula, musical behaviour and development, new research literatures have been developed that link music education with ethnomusicology, psychology (including neuropsychobiology, cognitive and developmental psychology), history, sociology and philosophy, as well as with mainstream studies in pedagogy. This review creates a ‘map’ of these various and related literatures in order to (i) provide a summative overview of the current breadth and depth of available research knowledge for actual and potential users, and (ii) create a research development agenda that embraces indicators of possible research priorities for the immediate future. The review is also a celebration of the major UK impact on these research literatures. An introduction (Swanwick) leads into a series of linked overviews, focusing first on research concerned with individual musical development (Hallam and Lamont), then on the potential impact to musical learning of social group membership (O’Neill and Green) and schooling (Cox and Hennessy) and concluding with an ethnomusicological perspective (Farrell) and coda (Welch).

Musical 'learning styles' and 'learning strategies' in the instrumental lesson: some emergent findings from a pilot study

This article considers the concepts of “learning style” and “learning strategy”. The former connotes an inbuilt trait which tends to remain fundamental to the way an individual approaches learning. The latter refers to a set of consciously-acquired and applied approaches or tactics designed to achieve a learning task. The article relates these concepts to the field of instrumental music learning, particularly the activity of learning to play by ear. In a pilot study, 15 instrumental students aged 10 to 17, covering eight different instruments, learnt to play pieces by ear. The research strategies and pedagogic methods derive from earlier studies, particularly the adaption of popular musicians’ informal learning practices in classroom contexts. Through participant observation and other qualitative methods, it is suggested that four potential aural “learning styles” emerged: the “impulsive”, the “shot-in-the-dark”, the “practical” and the “theoretical” styles. These are illustrated with qualitative data from lesson transcripts and annotations. They are then distinguished from three further aspects of learning that were apparent: pitch-sense, rhythm-sense and “learning strategies”. I suggest why further research in this area may be beneficial, and finally put forward some reasons why the identification of possible learning styles in relation to music could be of pedagogical significance.

Group cooperation, inclusion and disaffected pupils: some responses to informal learning in the music classroom. Presented at the RIME Conference 2007, Exeter, UK

This paper examines some personal and interpersonal issues concerning group work and informal learning in the music classroom. It analyses data from a recent research project, which adopted and adapted the informal music learning practices of popular musicians, for use in the classroom. The discussion focuses on three aspects of the project. Firstly, it considers the issue of group cooperation, or the ways in which pupils interacted to organise their learning in small groups. This includes various approaches, identified as ‘group learning’, ‘peer-directed learning’ and ‘leadership’. Secondly, the paper addresses the topic of inclusion in relation to how individuals with differing needs and experiences were able to respond to the project, and the extent to which the learning practices allowed differentiation. Thirdly, weaving through the first two strands, the paper examines the inclusion of pupils who had been identified by their teachers as disaffected. This involves considering the roles of imaginative play and personal identity in the music classroom, with relation to both musics cultural delineations and its sonic properties.

Ear playing and aural development in the instrumental lesson: Results from a “case-control” experiment

This article reports on a case-control experiment that was conducted in 2012 as part of the Ear Playing Project (EPP) at the Institute of Education, University of London. The EPP developed from the “informal learning” strand of Musical Futures and engaged instrumental students in the UK in learning from specially-created audio recordings without notation. Sixteen matched pairs of instrumental students (age 10–14 years) were divided into a “control” and an “experimental” group, with pupils taught using traditional instrumental teaching methods (without ear playing) in the former and with ear playing in the latter. The instrumentalists in both groups underwent aural tests prepared by the Associated Board of the Royal Schools of Music (ABRSM), which required played responses. Pre- and post-test scores were appraised for both groups for criteria including “Pitch,” “Rhythm,” “Contour,” “Tempo,” and “Closure,” as well as a holistic mark. With the “experimental” students surpassing the “control” group in every criterion assessed at the post-test stage, results suggest that playing by ear from a recording may be beneficial for children’s aural development.

Musical ‘learning styles’ and ‘learning strategies’ in the instrumental lesson: The Ear Playing Project (EPP)

Seventy-five audio recordings of learners attempting to copy a melody by ear were transcribed and analysed. Thematic analysis through NVivo was carried out and combined with judgements from four independent experts using a criteria grid. Overall, the learners’ spontaneous responses to the ear-playing task, termed here ‘learning styles’, were classified into four main categories, termed impulsive, shot-in-the-dark, practical and theoretical. Learners who showed evidence of possible Absolute Pitch (AP) were categorized across all the first three learning styles, suggesting that the ability to play back by ear from a recording may not be aided by AP. After the initial spontaneous response, the learners’ most common learning approaches, termed here ‘learning strategies’, included listening without playing, playing isolated notes, asking questions, listening and playing along with the recording, and experimenting. The findings suggest that the practice of playing along to a recording can reveal a range of spontaneous learning styles amongst students, of which teachers may otherwise remain unaware, and a range of further learning strategies that may provide new insights for music teachers.

Perceptions of schooling, pedagogy and notation in the lives of visually-impaired musicians

This article discusses findings on schooling, pedagogy and notation in the life-experiences of amateur and professional visually-impaired musicians/music teachers, and the professional experiences of sighted music teachers who work with visually-impaired learners. The study formed part of a broader UK Arts and Humanities Research Council funded project, officially entitled “Visually-impaired musicians’ lives: Trajectories of musical practice, participation and learning”, but which came to be known as “Visually-impaired musicians’ lives” (VIML). VIML was led at the UCL Institute of Education, London, UK and supported by the Royal Academy of Music, London, and Royal National Institute of Blind People (RNIB) UK, starting in 2013 and concluding in 2015. It sourced “insider” perspectives from 225 adult blind and partially-sighted musicians/music teachers, and 6 sighted music teachers, through life history interviews and an international questionnaire, which collected quantitative and qualitative data. Through articulating a range of “insider” voices, this article examines some issues, as construed by respondents, around educational equality and inclusion in music for visually-impaired children and adults in relation to three main areas: the provision of mainstream schooling versus special schools; pedagogy, including the preparedness of teachers to respond to the needs of visually-impaired learners; and the educational role of notation, focusing particularly on Braille as well as other print media. The investigation found multifaceted perspectives on the merits of visually-impaired children being educated in either mainstream or special educational contexts. These related to matters such as access to specific learning opportunities, a lack of understanding of visually-impaired musicians’ learning processes (including accessible technologies and score media) in mainstream contexts, and concerns about the knowledge of music educators in relation to visual impairment. Regarding pedagogy, there were challenges raised, but also helpful areas for sighted music educators to consider, such as differentiation by sight condition and approach, and the varying roles of gesture, language, light and touch. There was diversity in musical participation of visually-impaired adult learners, along with some surprising barriers as well as opportunities linked to different genres and musical contexts, particularly in relation to various print media, and sight reading.

Informal Learning as a Catalyst for Social Justice in Music Education

This chapter considers social justice in relation to the incorporation of a set of informal learning practices within the secondary school music classroom and teacher education. We interpret Nancy Fraser’s view of social justice as “parity of participation” in order to suggest that the dialogical approach of informal music learning practices can potentially promote such participatory parity. We then examine Paulo Freire’s concept of critical pedagogy, which emphasizes the need for teachers and students to participate together in the learning process so as to enhance critical consciousness. Through an application of Green’s theory of musical meaning we suggest that critical consciousness in music can be aided through a deeper understanding of music’s sonic materials and their inter-relations. Informal learning in the music classroom may promote both parity of participation and critical consciousness, with the potential to lead to a liberating musical experience.

Music, Gender, Education

This book focuses on the role of education in relation to music and gender. Invoking a concept of musical patriarchy and a theory of the social construction musical meanings, Lucy Green shows how womens musical practices and gendered musical meanings have been reproduced, hand in hand, through history. Covering a wide range of music, including classical, jazz and popular styles, Dr Green uses ethnographic methods to convey the everyday interactions and experiences of girls, boys, and their teachers. She views the contemporary school music classroom as a microcosm of the wider society, and reveals the participation of music education in the continued production and reproduction of gendered musical practices and meanings.