Ludmila Ageyeva

Molecular Imaging of Temporal Dynamics and Spatial Heterogeneity of Hypoxia-Inducible Factor-1 Signal Transduction Activity in Tumors in Living Mice

Tumor hypoxia is a spatially and temporally heterogeneous phenomenon, which results from several tumor and host tissue-specific processes. To study the dynamics and spatial heterogeneity of hypoxia-inducible factor-1 (HIF-1)-specific transcriptional activity in tumors, we used repetitive noninvasive positron emission tomography (PET) imaging of hypoxia-induced HIF-1 transcriptional activity in tumors in living mice. This approach uses a novel retroviral vector bearing a HIF-1–inducible “sensor” reporter gene (HSV1-tk/GFP fusion) and a constitutively expressed “beacon” reporter gene (DsRed2/XPRT). C6 glioma cells transduced with this multireporter system revealed dose-dependent patterns in temporal dynamics of HIF-1 transcriptional activity induced by either CoCl2 or decreased atmospheric oxygen concentration. Multicellular spheroids of C6 reporter cells developed a hypoxic core when >350 μm in diameter. 18F-2′-fluoro-2′deoxy-1β-D-arabionofuranosyl-5-ethyl-uracil (FEAU) PET revealed spatial heterogeneity of HIF-1 transcriptional activity in reporter xenografts in mice as a function of size or ischemia-reperfusion injury. With increasing tumor diameter (>3 mm), a marked increase in HIF-1 transcriptional activity was observed in the core regions of tumors. Even a moderate ischemia-reperfusion injury in small C6 tumors caused a rapid induction of HIF-1 transcriptional activity, which persisted for a long time because of the inability of C6 tumors to rapidly compensate acute changes in tumor microcirculation.

Molecular Imaging of EGFR Kinase Activity in Tumors with 124I-Labeled Small Molecular Tracer and Positron Emission Tomography

Positron emission tomography (PET) with epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) kinase-specific radiolabeled tracers could provide the means for noninvasive and repetitive imaging of heterogeneity of EGFR expression and signaling activity in tumors in individual patients before and during therapy with EGFR signaling inhibitors. We developed the synthesis and 124I-radiolabeling of the (E)-But-2-enedioic acid [4-(3-[124I]iodoanilino)-quinazolin-6-yl]-amide-(3-morpholin-4-yl-propyl)-amide (morpholino-[124I]-IPQA), which selectively, irreversibly, and covalently binds the adenosine-triphosphate-binding site to the activated (phosphorylated) EGFR kinase, but not to the inactive EGFR kinase. The latter was demonstrated using in silico modeling with crystal structures of the wild type and different gain-of-function mutants of EGFR kinases. Also, this was demonstrated by selective radiolabeling of the EGFR kinase domain with morpholino-[131I]-IPQA in A431 human epidermoid carcinoma cells and Western blot autoradiography. In vitro radiotracer accumulation and washout studies demonstrated a rapid accumulation and progressive retention postwashout of morpholino-[131I]-IPQA in A431 epidermoid carcinoma and in U87 human glioma cells genetically modified to express the EGFRvIII mutant receptor, but not in the wild-type U87MG glioma cells under serum-starved conditions. Using morpholino-[124I]-IPQA, we obtained noninvasive PET images of EGFR activity in A431 subcutaneous tumor xenografts, but not in subcutaneous tumor xenografts grown from K562 human chronic myeloid leukemia cells in immunocompromised rats and mice. Based on these observations, we suggest that PET imaging with morpholino-[124I]-IPQA should allow for identification of tumors with high EGFR kinase signaling activity, including brain tumors expressing EGFRvIII mutants and nonsmall-cell lung cancer expressing gain-of-function EGFR kinase mutants. Because of significant hepatobiliary clearance and intestinal reuptake of the morpholino-[124I]-IPQA, additional [124I]-IPQA derivatives with improved water solubility may be required to optimize the pharmacokinetics of this class of molecular imaging agents.

A Human-Derived Reporter Gene for Noninvasive Imaging in Humans: Mitochondrial Thymidine Kinase Type 2

A human-derived intrinsically nonimmunogenic reporter gene was tested for PET imaging of different molecular–genetic processes for potential clinical use. Methods: The human mitochondrial thymidine kinase type 2 (hTK2) reporter gene truncated at the N terminus (ΔhTK2), alone or fused with green fluorescent protein (GFP), was used for preclinical evaluation in a mouse model. The levels of enzymatic activity of ΔhTK2 and ΔhTK2 GFP proteins were assessed using radiotracer accumulation and prodrug activation assays in vitro and in subcutaneous tumors grown from the corresponding cell lines in nude mice. Kinetic analyses of 124I-2′-fluoro-2′-deoxy-1-β-d-β-arabinofuranosyl-5-iodouracil (FIAU), 18F-2′-fluoro-2′-deoxy-1-β-d-β-arabinofuranosyl-5-ethyluracil (FEAU), or 18F-9-(4-18F-fluoro-3-hydroxymethylbutyl)guanine (FHBG) uptake in tumors and biodistribution studies were performed. Results: ΔhTK2 was successfully expressed in the cytoplasm of transduced cells. A new anti-hTK2 monoclonal antibody 8G2 was developed. The levels of FIAU and FEAU accumulation in cells expressing ΔhTK2 and ΔhTK2 GFP were at least 10-fold higher than in wild-type cells in vitro and about 6 times higher in vivo. We determined that FEAU is a more specific reporter substrate for ΔhTK2 than FIAU, whereas FHBG is not phosphorylated by this enzyme. In addition, we showed that ΔhTK2 transduced cells can be eliminated by treatment with d-arabinofuranosyl-cytosine. Conclusion: We have tested a human-derived reporter gene that is likely to be nonimmunogenic and potentially allows for long-term monitoring of different molecular–genetic processes by nuclear imaging techniques in humans. Using 124I-FIAU, 18F-FIAU, or 18F-FEAU, it should be possible to image ΔhTK2 reporter gene expression with PET in preclinical and clinical studies.

Imaging hNET Reporter Gene Expression with 124I-MIBG

The norepinephrine transporter (NET) has recently been suggested as a useful reporter gene. We have extended this effort by constructing an internal ribosomal entry site (IRES)-linked hNET-green fluorescent protein (GFP) hybrid reporter gene for both nuclear and optical imaging. Methods: A retroviral vector pQCXhNET-IRES-GFP was constructed and used to generate several reporter cell lines and xenografts. Transduced cells were sorted by fluorescence-activated cell sorting based on GFP expression and used for both in vitro and in vivo imaging studies. Results: The transduced reporter cells accumulated 123I- or 124I-labeled metaiodobenzylguanidine (MIBG) to high levels compared with the wild-type parent cell lines. Differences in MIBG accumulation between cell lines were primarily due to differences in influx (K1) rather than efflux (k2). The estimated MIBG distribution volumes (Vd) for transduced Jurkat, C6, and COS-7 cells were 572 ± 13, 754 ± 25, and 1,556 ± 38 mL/g, respectively. A correlation between radiotracer accumulation (K1) and GFP fluorescence intensity was also demonstrated. Sequential imaging studies of mice bearing pQCXhNET-IRES-GFP transduced and wild-type C6 xenografts demonstrated several advantages of 124I-MIBG small-animal PET compared with 123I-MIBG γ-camera/SPECT. This was primarily due to the longer half-life of 124I and to the retention and slow clearance (half-time, 63 ± 6 h) of MIBG from transduced xenografts compared with that from wild-type xenografts (half-time, 12 ± 1 h) and other organs (half-time, 2.6–21 h). Very high radioactivity ratios were observed at later imaging times; at 73 h after 124I-MIBG injection, the C6/hNET-IRES-GFP xenograft-to-muscle ratio was 293 ± 48 whereas the C6 xenograft-to-muscle ratio was 0.71 ± 0.19. Conclusion: These studies demonstrate the potential for a wider application of hNET reporter imaging and the future translation to patient studies using radiopharmaceuticals that are currently available for both SPECT and PET.

hNIS-IRES-eGFP Dual Reporter Gene Imaging

The human and rodent sodium iodide symporters (NIS) have recently been cloned and are being investigated as potential therapeutic and reporter genes. We have extended this effort by constructing an internal ribosomal entry site (IRES)-linked human NIS (hNIS)-enhanced green fluorescent protein (eGFP) hybrid reporter gene for both nuclear and optical imaging. A self-inactivating retroviral vector, termed pQCNIG, containing hNIS-IRES-eGFP dual reporter gene, driven by a constitutive CMV promoter, was constructed and used to generate RG2-pQCNIG cells and RG2-pQCNIG tumors. 131I-iodide and 99mTcO4-pertechnetate accumulation studies plus fluorescence microscopy and intensity assays were performed in vitro, and gamma camera imaging studies in RG2-pQCNIG and RG2 tumor-bearing athymic rats were performed. RG2-pQCNIG cells expressed high levels of hNIS protein and showed high intensity of eGFP fluorescence compared with RG2 wild-type cells. RG2-pQCNIG cells accumulated Na131I and 99mTcO4– to a 50:1 and a 170:1 tissue/medium ratio at 10 min, compared with 0.8:1.2 tissue/medium ratio in wild-type RG2 cells. A significant correlation between radiotracer accumulation and eGFP fluorescence intensity was demonstrated. RG2-pQCNIG and RG2 tumors were readily differentiated by in vivo gamma camera imaging; radiotracer uptake increased in RG2-pQCNIG but declined in RG2 tumors over the 50-min imaging period. Stomach and thyroid were the major organs of radionuclide accumulation. The IRES-linked hNIS-eGFP dual reporter gene is functional and stable in transduced RG2-pQCNIG cells. Optical and nuclear imaging of tumors produced from these cell lines provides the opportunity to monitor tumor growth and response to therapy. These studies indicate the potential for a wider application of hNIS reporter imaging and translation into patient studies using radioisotopes that are currently available for human use for both SPECT and PET imaging.

Erratum: Molecular Imaging of EGFR Kinase Activity in Tumors with 124I-Labeled Small Molecular Tracer and Positron Emission Tomography (Mol Imaging Biol (2006) vol. 8 (5) (262-277) 10.1007/s11307-006-0049-0))

Molecular Imaging of EGFR Kinase Activity in Tumors with I-Labeled Small Molecular Tracer and Positron Emission Tomography A. Pal, A. Glekas, M. Doubrovin, J. Balatoni, M. Namavari, T. Beresten, D. Maxwell, S. Soghomonyan, A. Shavrin, L. Ageyeva, R. Finn, S. M. Larson, W. Bornmann, J. G. Gelovani Department of Experimental Diagnostic Imaging, MD Anderson Cancer Center, Unit 057, 1515 Holcombe Blvd., Houston, TX 77030, USA Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, 1275 York Avenue, New York, NY 10021, USA