Lydia Oberholtzer

A Geographic Approach to Place and Natural Resource Use in Local Food Systems

This article illuminates the geographic concept of ‘place’ in local foods. Because the social aspects of local food have been more fully addressed in previous literature, this review focuses instead on the ecological aspects of farming and food. First, the literature on natural resource use in agriculture provides contextual understanding of water use, biodiversity, soils and agro-ecological methods. The complex relationship between climate change and agriculture is described and models assessing the impacts of climate change on agriculture are detailed. The geography of local food is specifically addressed by describing methods for assessing natural resource use in local food, including food miles, consumer transportation, scale and community, agricultural methods and diet. Finally, future research paths are suggested to provide a comprehensive evaluation of the environmental impact of local food. Such research would encompass the geography of local food through development of broader, more inclusive strategy, including the concept of the ‘ecological appetite’ of crops and foods, the union of both social and ecological aspects of resource use, the linkages between rural and urban producers and consumers and the inclusion of farmers’ ecological knowledge. Overall, the geography of local food seeks to assess the where of food production and consumption, while incorporating key issues of how (agro-ecological methods benefiting the community) and what (locally appropriate crops).

Urban agriculture: connecting producers with consumers

Purpose – Urban farming is becoming more common in the USA, as food-based entrepreneurs seek to make money farming in the city. Yet many urban farms are concerned with other factors in addition to food production, and thus have incorporated social goals into their missions. The purpose of this paper is to identify the social missions of urban farms in the USA, their extent, and explores differences and similarities among farms with varying missions. Design/methodology/approach – The authors use primary data collected from a 2012 national survey of urban farmers in the USA. In total, 35 questions, covering the 2012 farm year, targeted production and marketing practices, risks and challenges, information and technical assistance needs, farm size and location, age of primary farmer, and farm characteristics. A multinomial logistic model was used to analyze the social missions of urban farms in the sample. Findings – The authors find that food production is an essential part of the mission for all urban farms...

Examining U.S. Food Retailers’ Decisions to Procure Local and Organic Produce From Farmer Direct-to-Retail Supply Chains

U.S. food retailing is a competitive sector that has undergone rapid changes. The U.S. market for organic products has expanded rapidly over the last decade, while local foods have become a more visible marketing strategy. Studies focusing on the marketing of these products by retailers are sparse and generally qualitative. This article is the first quantitative examination of the connection between the local and organic retailing. A sample selection model is used with data from a 2008 national survey of organic retailers to study supplier interactions and company characteristics that influence a retailer’s decision to procure local organic produce directly from farmers, and the rate at which they procure these products. The results show that the number of years a store has sold organic products and the size of the company, as well as aspects prioritized in choosing suppliers and past problems interacting with local suppliers, affect the outcomes.

The promises of farming in the city: Introduction to the urban agriculture themed issue

As the finishing touches go on this themed issue, evidence of widespread enthusiasm for urban farming is apparent in many developed countries. Farming in the city, commonly referred to as urban agriculture, has been put forth as a solution to multiple social problems, including the provision of new green spaces, control of runoff and provision of shade that offsets the heat of the concrete city. In cities with abundant vacant land and abandoned plots, urban agriculture promises a reduction of urban blight.

Reducing the Geographic and Financial Barriers to Food Access: Perceived Benefits of Farmers' Markets and Monetary Incentives

Consumers living in food deserts lack geographic access to food; those same consumers are often low-income and thus face additional constraints to purchasing foods. New programs address the geographic and financial aspects of food access. One program, administered by Wholesome Wave, pairs financial incentives and healthy food purchases. Analysis of consumer survey data showed statistical evidence that consumers from areas with low food access, who were also income constrained, were the most likely to perceive that their consumption was higher. The findings point to the promise of the combination of markets and incentives for reducing barriers to healthy food consumption.

International trade of organic food: Evidence of US imports

Over the past decade, organic food sales and farmland have grown rapidly worldwide. As the US market for organic food has expanded, anecdotal evidence indicates that imports of organic food have increased. US organic handlers may be importing to meet consumer demand for out-of-season products, as well as products not grown domestically. Handlers may also be importing organic products that are in short supply or to reduce input costs. This paper provides the first examination of imports of organic products into the USA. Data from a national survey of certified organic handlers in 2007 are used to examine the extent, types and origins of imported organic commodities. A Heckman model is employed to investigate the factors that influence an organic handlers decision to import organic products, and the level at which organic handlers import a product. Summary results show that while many of the products being imported into the USA are those that cannot be produced domestically, such as coffee and tropical fruits, some oft-imported commodities are those that can be produced in the USA, such as soybeans, wheat, barley and berries. The summary results also show that organic handlers are procuring almost a half of their imported products from a few countries, including Canada, China, Mexico, Brazil and Indonesia. In the econometric analysis, we found those handlers prioritizing local suppliers negatively affected the facilitys decision to import products. The use of a social label, such as Fair Trade, positively affected a handlers decision to import. The size of organic sales was important to both the decision to import and the share imported, with larger firms more likely to import and smaller firms less likely to import. However, once a smaller firm had decided to import, they imported a larger share. Finally, our analysis found that experiencing limited supplies or prioritizing price with suppliers did not influence a handlers decision to import products. Based on the findings, we suggest future research avenues, including studies that address consumer preferences and the impact of increased imports on domestic organic farms.

The U.S. Organic Handling Sector in 2004: Baseline Findings of the Nationwide Survey of Organic Manufacturers, Processors, and Distributors

The organic sector has expanded rapidly over the last decade, as retail sales of organic food increased to

A Brief Retrospective on the U.S. Organic Sector: 1997 and 2003

15.7 billion in 2006. As sales have grown, so have the number and types of outlets selling organic products. USDA’s Economic Research Service surveyed certified organic intermediaries in the United States to collect information on basic characteristics of the sector in 2004, as well as its marketing and procurement practices. This report uses the survey findings to present a baseline view of the organic handling sector. A large share of organic handlers are mixed operations that handle both organic and conventional products, and most began as conventional firms that converted to handling organic products. Most organic products are sold domestically, with nearly three-quarters sold nationally or regionally. More than three-quarters of the firms are independent, and most are small. Handlers seek suppliers with a reputation for providing high-quality products. Most transactions between handlers and suppliers occur under contract, reportedly so that handlers can procure ingredients essential for their businesses.

Meeting market demand in the organic sector: Handler–supplier relationships in the face of tight supply

Introduction Organic products have shifted from being a lifestyle choice for a small share of consumers to being consumed at least occasionally by two-thirds of American consumers (5), consequently increasing opportunities for producers, handlers, and retailers of organic products. Along with the increased market opportunities, the production and distribution sides of the sector have taken on a new character. Formerly, organic foods were judged not only by taste, price, and appearance, but also by their social and environmental benefits. As the market has grown, consumers and businesses have developed broader reasons for purchasing and producing organic food. Today’s organic industry consists of new entrants — including most notably conventional supermarkets, manufacturers, and distributors — as well as long-time, established organic firms — including producers, natural foods stores, and distributors. Each group has a comparative advantage in the industry. Conventional firms have established, low cost ways of moving product along the supply chain. In many cases, they are building up knowledge of the organic sector by purchasing organic firms and their expertise. Long-time organic firms have extensive knowledge of organic products and how to access the natural products markets, and are learning to compete with and coexist with conventional firms new to the industry. In this paper, we trace some of the changes in the organic sector by comparing the industry in 1997 and 2003, starting with consumers and moving back through the supply chain to the farm level. We conclude with a brief discussion of opportunities and obstacles to market growth in the organic sector.

Adding value in the organic sector: Characteristics of organic producer–handlers

Periodic shortfalls of organic food have been commonplace in the USA. Shortages, created when demand grows faster than supply, have been exacerbated by relatively slow growth of certified organic farmland (in comparison to growth in retail sales) over the past decade. Organic intermediaries, referred to as handlers in the US national organic standards, work with farmers and other handlers in moving organic products along the supply chain, and are often the first to feel the effects of tight supplies at the farm level. These firms have a variety of mechanisms available to procure needed ingredients when organic products are in short supply: contracts with suppliers, encouraging suppliers to transition to organic, working with suppliers to increase their output, working with new suppliers, providing technical assistance with organic standards and production methods, and making less than load shipment arrangements with suppliers. Survey data collected from certified organic handlers are used to identify characteristics that make it more likely that an organic handler will undertake activities with suppliers to affect the supply of organic products. Handlers most likely to work with their suppliers had been in business for longer periods of time, bought from growers or grower cooperatives, and were more likely to be wholesalers. Handlers who consider price as important were less likely to undertake activities with their supplies to increase the supply or flow of organic products.